/ 


EDUCATIONAL   PROGRESS    IN   GREECE 

DURING  THE  MINOAN,  MYCENAEAN, 

AND  LYRIC  PERIODS 


By 

DwiGHT  Grafton  Burrage 


A    THESIS 

Presented  to  the  Faculty  of 

The  Graduate  College  in  the  University  of  Nebraska 

in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  Requirements 

for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy 

Department  of  Greek 


Lincoln,  Nebraska 
1920 


THB   COCKLB  PRINTINO  CO. 
OMAHA.    NKB. 


Digitized  by  tine  Internet  Arciiive 

in  2008  witii  funding  from 

IVIicrosoft  Corporation 


littp://www.arcliive.org/details/educationalprogrOOburrricli 


EDUCATIONAL   PROGfilBgS  jIN  ipEllEiCE 

DURING  THE  MINOAN,  MYCENAEAN, 

AND  LYRIC  PERIODS 


By 

DwiGHT  Grafton  Burrage 


A    THESIS 

Presented  to  the  Faculty  of 

The  Graduate  College  in  the  University  of  Nebraska 

in  Partial  Fulfillment  of  Requirements 

for  the  Degree  of  Doctor  of  Philosophy 

Department  of  Greek 


Lincoln,  Nebraska 
1920 


THB  COCKLE  PRINTINO  CO.. 
OMAHA,    NEB. 


3s 


PREFACE 

The  subject,  Educational  Progress  in  Greece  during  the  Minoan, 
Mycenaean,  and  Lyric  Periods,  was  suggested  by  the  theme  which  the 
writer  had  taken  for  his  master's  thesis,  Homeric  Education.  At  first 
the  plan  was  to  include  in  the  larger  work  the  earlier  paper,  rewrit- 
ten and  adapted  to  its  position  as  a  part  of  a  greater  whole;  but  the 
decision  was  finally  made  to  have  the  doctor's  thesis  cover  only  new 
ground,  though  an  hiatus  might  be  left  in  the  description  of  the 
chronological  development  of  education  in  early  Greece.  Conse- 
quently we  shall  pass  somewhat  abruptly  from  the  Mycenaean  to  the 
Lyric  period. 

A  definite  date  had  to  be  selected,  down  to  which  we  should 
carry  our  investigation.  525  B.  C.  was  adopted,  not  because  it  marks 
the  end  of  the  production  of  lyric  poetry  by  any  means,  but  because 
Pindar  and  Aeschylus,  who  belong  to  the  new  age,  were  born  about 
this  time.  Tragedy  too  was  now  coming  into  existence  and  was  to 
be  the  most  characteristic  form  of  poetry  in  the  fifth  century.  Again 
the  object  of  our  study  is  to  trace  the  development  of  education  in  the 
early  time,  before  Greece  had  made  her  great  achievements  along 
the  line  of  government,  learning  and  aesthetics.  In  the  last  years  of 
the  sixth  century  Greece  was  already  emerging  from  obscurity  and 
rapidly  taking  the  position  that  she  was  to  maintain  in  the  next  two 
and  a  half  centuries.  We  wish  to  confine  ourselves  to  the  early  days 
of  the  development  of  Greek  education,  a  field  for  which  there  is 
little  contemporary  evidence,  but  which  is  attractive  on  account  of 
the  freshness,  simplicity,  and  freedom  from  convention  that  mark 
the  age. 

We  are  greatly  indebted  to  Provost  James  T.  Lees  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Nebraska  for  inspiration  and  for  guidance  in  our  prepara- 
tion of  this  thesis.  His  suggestions  have  been  very  valuable  in  shap- 
ing the  work  as  a  whole  and  likewise  in  the  matter  of  details.  We 
gladly  express  our  appreciation  of  his  interest  and  kindly  assistance. 


39.5  7 '3 


INTRODUCTION 

The  history  of  no  country  is  complete  unless  it  deals  to  some 
extent  with  the  means  used  to  hand  down  from  one  generation  to 
another  the  accumulated  learning  and  the  institutions  of  the  past,  to 
mould  the  young  so  that  they  may  realize  the  ideals  that  are  char- 
acteristic of  the  people,  and  to  train  all  to  take  an  active  part  in  the 
political,  social,  and  religious  life  of  the  nation.  This  may  be  con- 
sidered education  in  the  broader  sense  of  the  word,  but  it  includes 
not  only  the  work  of  the  schools  and  the  definite  instruction  given 
by  the  parents  to  their  children,  but  also  all  those  influences  that 
tend  to  develop  the  mind  and  to  fit  man  for  greater  usefulness.  With 
this  conception  of  education  in  mind  we  turn  to  early  Greece,  before 
and  after  the  dawn  of  history,  to  study  how  this  training  and  these 
influences  manifest  themselves. 

Many  have  written  of  Greek  education,  dealing  with  a  later 
period,  when  the  states  were  seeking  consciously  to  train  the  young 
so  as  to  attain  their  national  educational  ideals,  when  philosophers 
were  theorizing  on  the  subject,  and  when  different  pedagogical  sys- 
tems were  coming  into  conflict,  but  our  period  for  investigation  is  a 
much  earlier  one.  Such  a  subject  must  deal  with  an  age  when  the 
training  of  the  young  was  more  unconscious,  when  there  was  much 
less  direct  instruction,  and  when  there  was  little  of  theory.  It  must 
consider  the  ideals  for  the  training  of  the  young  and  the  means  used 
to  accomplish  this  end.  It  must  examine  the  subject  matter  of  instruc- 
tion and  it  must  seek  the  earliest  indications  of  formal  education. 

This  study  is  to  be  carried  back  to  prehistoric  times.  We  must 
learn  what  we  can  of  education  in  the  Minoan  period  and  in  the 
Mycenaean  Age,  before  we  endeavor  to  trace  its  further  evolution 
after  776  B.  C.,  the  first  authentic  date  in  Greek  history. 

The  same  general  outline  may  perhaps  best  be  followed  in  taking 
up  the  education  of  each  period.  First  we  shall  consider  the  ideals 
of  education  and  the  means  employed  and  then  its  subject  matter, 
including  intellectual,  physical,  and  religious  training.  In  treating 
of  the  later  part  of  the  lyric  period  we  shall  depart  from  this  outline, 
as  with  the  rapidly  developing  civilization  of  that  age,  it  seems  best 
to  cover  the  ground  by  studying  the  educational  bearing  of  certain 
movements  that  were  characteristic  of  the  time.     Finally  we  shall 


2  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

note  in  review  the  most  striking  features  of  the  periods  studied  and 
their  significance  in  the  history  of  Greek  education. 

We  begin  with  the  epoch  of  Aegean  civilization,  which  includes 
both  the  Minoan  and  Mycenaean  periods. 


EDUCATION  IN  THE  PERIOD  OF  ^GEAN  CIVILIZATION 

In  the  study  of  this  period  the  hooks  that  have  been  most  useful 
have  been  the  following :  R,  M.  Burrows'  Discoveries  in  Crete,  H.  R. 
Hall's  Aegean  Archaeology,  Crete  the  Forerunner  of  Greece  by  C.  H. 
and  H.  B.  Hawes,  J.  Baikie's  Sea-Kings  of  Crete,  the  articles  in  the 
Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  11th.  Edition,  on  Crete  (ancient)  by  A. 
J.  Evans  and  on  Aegean  Civilization  by  D.  G,  Hogarth,  the  articles  by 
A.  J.  Evans  in  the  Annual  of  the  British  School  at  Athens,  Vols.  VI- 
XI,  R.  Dussand's  Les  Civilizations  Prehelleniques  dans  le  Bassin  de 
la  Mer  Egee,  A.  J.  Evans'  Scripta  Minoa;  and  of  especial  value  for 
the  Mycenaean  Age,  Schliemann' s  Excavations,  by  C.  Schuchhardt, 
and  The  Mycenaean  Age  by  C.  Tsountas  and  J.  I.  Manatt.  Other 
books  which  have  been  used  to  a  less  extent  are  listed  in  the  general 
bibliography. 

We  need  not  discuss  at  length  the  origin  of  the  people  who  devel- 
oped the  earliest  civilization  in  Hellenic  lands. ^  They  seem  to  have 
been  a  non-Aryan  people  coming  from  the  East  or  South,  who  made 
Crete  their  first  great  center.  Thence  their  civilization  spread  to  the 
smaller  islands  and  to  the  mainland  of  Greece.  In  the  latter  place 
important  cities  arose,  when  the  centers  on  the  island  of  Crete  were 
already  in  a  state  of  decline.  Gradually  Aryan  tribes  from  the  North 
came  down  into  Greece.  At  first  they  adopted  the  civilization  they 
found  and  in  return  gave  their  language  to  the  land.  We  may  name 
these  first  comers  of  the  Aryan  race,  Achaeans.  But  they  were  fol- 
lowed by  barbarous  hordes,  who  overran  Greece  and  almost  oblit- 
erated the  earlier  civilization.  The  Achaeans  that  were  not  slain  or 
enslaved  fled,  as  best  they  could,  to  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor,  carrying 
with  them  the  remembrance  of  their  past  glory.  The  new  inhabitants, 
the  Dorians,  as  they  were  later  called,  had  in  the  course  of  time  to 
develop  a  new  civilization,  influenced  very  little  by  that  which  it 
superseded. 

It  is  the  education  of  those  people  who  developed  the  earliest 
civilization  in  Crete,  on  the  islands  of  the  Aegean,  and  on  the  main- 
land of  Greece  that  we  wish  first  to  discuss. 

Almost  nothing  was  known  of  this  civilization  until  the  last  fifty 
years.    The  Lion  Gate  at  Mycenae,  the  walls  of  Tiryns,  and  the  so- 

'For  discussion  of  this  point  see  Hogarth  in  article  on  Aegean  Civilization  in  Encyclopaedia 
Britannica,  11th.  Edition,  and  Chap.  XI  in  Crete  the  Forerunner  of  Greece  by  C.  H.  and  H  B 
Hawes.  For  bibliography  on  this  subject  see  Botsford  and  Sihler:  Hellenic  CivUizaeion  p  lie' 
under    (g).  '     *         ' 


4  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

called  treasuries  of  Atreus  and  Minyas  have  never  been  buried.  The 
ancient  Greeks  believed  that  they  were  constructed  by  foreigners  and 
this  view  was  accepted  till  comparatively  recent  times.  Between 
1870  and  1890  Dr.  Schliemann's  excavations  at  Troy,  Mycenae,  Or- 
chomenus,  and  Tiryns^  presented  the  evidence  of  a  civilization  little 
dreamed  of  by  scholars  of  an  earlier  date.  In  1900  and  the  years 
following  Dr.  A.  J.  Evans'  discoveries  in  Crete,^  supplemented  by 
those  of  other  archaeologists,  have  added  much  more  to  our  knowl- 
edge of  the  prehistoric  Aegean  people. 

A  careful  study  of  all  that  has  been  excavated  in  the  different 
layers  on  these  sites,  taken  in  connection  with  the  known  chronology 
of  Egypt,  has  resulted  in  giving  us  some  idea  of  the  relative  dates 
for  the  rise  of  the  larger  cities  and  for  the  building  activity  devel- 
oped, and  for  the  progress  in  art.  We  may  state  these  approximately 
as  follows:^ 
Before  3000,  B.  G  Stone  Age 

3000—2000,  B.  C.  Early  Bronze  Age 

Early  cities  at  Troy 
2000—1500,    B.    C  Palace  at  Cnossus 

Great  prosperity  of  Crete 
Shaft-graves  at  Mycenas 
1500 — ]  200,  B.   C.  Destruction  of  palace  at  Cnossus 

Palaces  built  at  Tiryns  and 

Mycenae 
Mycenasan  Troy 
Bee-hive  tombs  in  Greece 
1100,  B.  C.  Dorian  Invasion 

The  name,  Minoan  period,  is  given  to  the  eighteen  centuries 
from  3000  to  about  1200.  A  little  before  1600  the  Mycenaean  Age 
begins  and  continues  till  about  1200,  contemporaneous  with  the  lat- 
ter part  of  the  Minoan  period,  with  its  centers  however  on  the  main- 
land of  Greece. 

As  the  excavations  have  yielded  more  and  more  material  for 
study,  it  has  become  increasingly  plain  that  in  this  early  age  there 
arose  a  highly  developed  civilization  and  such  civilization  implies 
education.    It  will  be  our  purpose  to  discuss  first  the  education  of 


'For  these  excavations  and  their  results  see  Schuchhardt :  Schliemann's  Excavations  and  Tsountas 
and  Manatt:  The  Mycenaean  Age,  besides  Schliemann's  own  books,  Ilios,  Ithaka,  Mycenae  and 
Tiryns. 

^Annual  of  British  School  at  Athens,  VI-XI. 

'Adapted  from  table  at  end  of  Fimmen's  Zeit  und  Dauer  der  Kretisch-Mykenischen  Kultur. 


Period  of  Aegean  Civilization  5 

the  Minoan  period  and  then  to  take  up  briefly  that  of  the  Mycenaean 
Age,  so  far  as  it  differs  from  Minoan  education. 


MINOAN  EDUCATION 

In  the  first  place  we  shall  consider  the  ideals  or  object  of  Minoan 
education,  then  the  means  of  education,  and  finally  its  subject  mat- 
ter. 

Above  all  the  education  of  these  people  of  Crete  and  the  nearby 
islands  was  undoubtedly  practical.  The  cities  that  have  been  un- 
earthed were  busy  commercial  places.^  There  was  trade  by  land  and 
sea.  Builders  had  attained  great  skill,  as  is  indicated  by  the  elab- 
orate palaces  constructed.  Aesthetic  ideals  were  also  realized  in 
their  attainments  in  art.  H.  R.  Hall  in  his  Aegean  Archaeology  makes 
this  statement  concerning  Minoan  culture:  "Of  all  civilizations  of 
the  world  it  was  in  some  ways  the  most  artistic,  the  most  aesthetic."- 

Now  the  skill  displayed  in  these  activities  must  have  been  passed 
from  one  generation  to  another  by  some  system  of  education.  We 
may  easily  conjecture  from  our  familiaritv  with  other  early  people 
that  this  knowledge  was  handed  down  from  father  to  son  by  direct 
instruction  and  that  certain  occupations  were  hereditary.  Perhaps 
the  apprentice  system  too  may  have  been  in  use  to  some  extent. 

Furthermore  the  discovery  of  tablets  of  clay  inscribed  with 
linear  script  has  established  the  fact  that  the  early  Cretans  had  a  sys- 
tem of  writing.  We  shall  discuss  this  more  at  length  later.  We  are 
concerned  at  present  with  the  manner  in  which  this  art  was  imparted 
to  others  by  those  who  practised  it.  Instruction  in  reading  and  writ- 
ing can  easily  be  given  to  a  number  at  once.  Hence  it  is  possible 
that  schools  may  have  existed  in  that  early  day.  In  fact  Dr.  Evans 
thinks  he  has  found  a  school-room  in  the  palace  at  Cnossus.  We  give 
this  description  of  it  in  his  own  words: 

"Several  small  rooms  are  enclosed  within  this  area,  the  most 
interesting  being  that  which  occupies  its  northwest  corner.  Along 
the  south  wall  of  this  room  ran  a  low  stone  bench,  at  the  west  end 
of  which  stood  a  square  pillar  coated  with  stucco,  the  upper  surface 
of  which  was  hollowed  into  a  bowl-like  cavity.  At  the  other  end  of 
the  bench  was  another  lower  pillar  of  rough  stone,  perhaps  originally 
plastered  over,  with  a  similar  cavity — the  one  pillar  being  of  a  height 
to  be  used  by  a  man,  the  other  by  a  child.    Opposite  this  bench  and 

•See  chap.  HI,  Hawcs:     Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece. 
=Page  254. 


6  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

pillars,  against  the  north  wall,  was  another  similar  stone  bench,  and 
the  masonry  rising  behind  it  at  a  somewhat  higher  level  gave  the 
appearance  of  a  second.  This,  however,  according  to  the  explana- 
tion adopted  above,  should  probably  be  regarded  as  part  of  an  outer 
wall  of  solid  masonry.  .  .  .  Along  the  side  walls  of  the  room  are  two 
more  stone  benches,  which  have  a  distinct  inward  slope  as  they 
recede  from  the  south  wall,  an  arrangement  which  inevitably  recalls 
that  of  a  modern  class-room.  The  name  of  'school-room'  has  there- 
fore been  provisionally  given  to  this  chamber  as  a  distinctive  title. 
May  we,  perhaps,  imagine  that  the  higher  and  lower  stucco  bowls 
were  used,  by  master  and  pupils  respectively,  for  keeping  moist  the 
clay  lumps,  out  of  which  were  moulded  the  tablets  that  serve  as  a 
vehicle  for  the  linear  script,  and  that  the  art  of  writing  was  here 
imparted  to  the  Palace  youth  ?"^ 

Dr.  Evans  is  cautious  in  expressing  his  view,  but  it  seems  rea- 
sonable. Further,  if  there  was  one  school,  it  is  likely  that  there  were 
more.  If  no  similar  room  has  been  found  at  Phasstus  and  elsewhere, 
it  does  not  follow  that  such  rooms  did  not  exist,  for  benches  and 
pillars  could  easily  be  obliterated,  especially  if  they  were  made  of 
less  lasting  materials  than  those  used  at  Cnossus. 

At  best  the  methods  of  instruction  of  this  early  people  are  a 
matter  of  conjecture,  but  we  know  more  of  what  they  had  to  study. 
The  subject  matter  that  was  taught  may  be  taken  up  under  three  heads 
— intellectual,  physical,  and  moral. 

INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION 

The  archaeological  discoveries  in  Crete  and  other  seats  of  this 
ancient  civilization  show  attainments  made  along  lines  that  furnish 
material  for  instruction  in  our  modern  schools;  for  instance  writing, 
which  has  already  been  referred  to,  was  highly  developed  in  the 
Minoan  period  and  might  well  have  been  taught  in  the  schools. 

The  earliest  form  of  writing  was  pictographic  symbols  on  gems 
and  seals.^  This  developed  into  a  hieroglyphic  system  and  from  the 
latter  linear  script  was  derived.  This  has  been  found  in  various 
places  in  Crete  and  some  traces  of  it  have  been  found  also  in  Melos 
and  Thera.''    Later  this  form  of  writing  was  superseded  by  a  different 

^Annual  of  British  School  at  Athens,  VII,  1900-01,  p.  96. 

''Kor  diitcussion  of  Minoan  wriiing  see  llvans:    Hcripta  Minoa,  for  a  brief  account  see  Hall:  Aegean 

Archaeology,  pp.  211-229;   for  a  bibliography  of  the  subject  see  Botsfurd  and  Sihicr:  Hellenic 

Civiliiation,  p.  116,  under  (e). 
'Evans:  Scripta  Minoa,  pp.  34-35. 


Period  of  Aegean  Civilization  7 

form  at  Cnossus,  somewhat  similar,  but  distinct  from  it,  which  how- 
ever has  not  been  found  elsewhere.^ 

The  Cretan  linear  script  ran  from  left  to  right.  Of  the  appear- 
ance of  its  most  advanced  form  Dr.  Evans  writes:  "The  characters 
have  a  European  aspect.  They  are  of  upright  habit,  and  of  a  simple 
and  definite  outline,  which  throws  into  sharp  relief  the  cumbrous 
and  obscure  cuneiform  system  of  Babylonia.  Although  not  so  cur- 
sive in  form  as  the  Hieratic  or  Demotic  types  of  Egyptian  writing, 
there  is  here  a  much  more  limited  selection  of  types.  It  would  seem 
that  the  characters  stand  for  syllables  or  even  letters,  though  they 
could  in  most  cases  also  be  used  as  words."^ 

Aside  from  gems  the  great  bulk  of  our  inscriptions  in  this  writ- 
ing is  on  clay  tablets,  originally  unbaked,  but  burned  (and  so  pre- 
served to  us)  by  the  fire  that  destroyed  the  palace  at  Cnossus.  These 
tablets  seem  to  contain  records  and  business  memoranda,^  though 
they  have  not  yet  been  deciphered.  If  there  was  a  literature  in  this 
language,  it  was  doubtless  inscribed  on  papyrus  or  skins  with  ink.* 
Some  cups  bear  inscriptions  made  in  ink  with  a  reed  pen.^  The  use 
of  such  a  pen  would  suggest  that  other  writing  materials  were  em- 
ployed more  convenient  than  clay. 

That  the  use  of  writing  was  not  confined  to  business  purposes 
is  shown  by  the  discovery  in  the  Dictaean  Cave  of  a  libation  table 
inscribed  with  the  linear  script.^  Here  it  had  evidently  a  religious 
use.  Its  appearance  on  the  cups  mentioned  above  and  on  some  large 
jars^  and  in  graffti  on  the  walls  of  the  palace  at  Hagia  Triada^  would 
indicate  that  it  entered  into  the  life  of  the  people.  And  the  fact, 
already  mentioned,  that  this  style  of  writing  is  found  in  various 
places  in  Crete  and  on  some  of  the  islands  indicates  that  it  was  some- 
what widely  spread.  All  this  goes  to  show  that  not  a  few  of  the 
Minoan  people  must  have  learned  to  read  and  write. 

On  many  of  the  tablets  containing  linear  script  numbers  are 
also  found.  From  these  it  has  been  discovered  that  the  Cretans 
possessed  a  decimal  system  with  numbers  running  as  high  as  10,000.^ 
The  Cretans  used  scales,  for  these  are  represented  on  Cnossian  tab- 


'Ib.,  p.  38. 

='Ib.,  p.  39. 

Hb.,  p.  21. 

*Hall:    Aegean  Archaeology,  p.  217. 

°Evang:     Scripta  Minoa,  p.  29. 

«Ib.,  p.  15. 

'lb.,  p.  33. 

Hh.,  p.  36. 

^Evans  in  article  in  Encyclopaeria  Britannica  on  Crete. 


8  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

lets.^  Weights  have  also  been  discovered,  some  equalling  the  light 
Babylonian  talent.  Nineteen  ingots  of  bronze  in  one  place  had  all 
practically  this  weight.^  Pieces  of  gold  beaten  in  the  form  of  ox- 
heads  and  small  pieces  of  gold  and  silver,  one  of  the  latter  bearing 
a  mark  upon  it  resembling  a  symbol,  suggest  a  rudimentary  system 
of  coinage.^  Of  course  the  construction  of  such  a  building  as  the 
palace  at  Cnossus  implies  the  use  of  definite  measures.  Conditions 
therefore  were  such  that  a  man  taking  part  in  the  life  of  his  city 
must  have  needed  instruction  in  elementary  mathematics  and  we 
can  hardly  doubt  that  the  sons  of  well-to-do  families  did  not  fail  to 
get  this  training.  Furthermore  D,  C.  Hogarth  points  out  that  there 
must  have  existed  a  complicated  system  of  bookkeeping  in  the  pal- 
ace at  Cnossus.*  As  has  been  said  before,  the  tablets  found  at  Cnos- 
sus seem  to  have  been  business  documents.  They  were  laid  away  in 
chests.  Some  were  endorsed  on  the  back.^  In  a  house  of  a  mer- 
chant at  Zakro  five  hundred  seal-impressions  were  discovered."  Cer- 
tainly some  training  must  have  been  required  along  business  lines. 

The  aesthetic  found  a  place  in  the  old  Aegean  education  as  well 
as  the  practical.  Music  was  cultivated  to  some  extent  and  art  had 
reached  a  state  of  high  development. 

As  for  the  music  our  evidence  is  scanty  but  important.  Besides 
a  representation  on  a  stone  of  a  woman  blowing  a  conch-shell'  and 
the  figure  with  the  sistrum  on  the  "Harvester  Vase,"®  neither  of 
which  would  indicate  a  high  form  of  music,  we  have  the  paintings 
on  the  sarcophagus  from  Hagia  Triada."  On  one  side  is  a  repre- 
sentation of  religious  rites,  undoubtedly  in  honor  of  the  dead.  Among 
the  worshipers  is  a  man  holding  in  his  hand  a  lyre  similar  in  form 
to  that  of  classic  times  with  seven  strings.  On  the  other  side  of  the 
sarcophagus  there  is  also  depicted  a, scene  in  which  figures  stand  by 
an  altar.  One  of  these  is  playing  upon  the  double  flute.  This  instru- 
ment apparently  had  fourteen  openings,  eight  being  visible  and  the 
remainder  covered  by  the  hands  of  the  player.^" 

On  the  "Harvester  Vase,"  already  mentioned,  a  procession  is 


'Burrows:    Discoveries  in  Crete,  p.  16. 

-lb.,  p.  15. 

"lb.,  pp.  16-17. 

'Article  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  on  Aegean  Civili^tion. 

"Evans:     Scripta  Minoa,  p.   42. 

''Baikie :    Sea-Kings  of  Crete,  p.  224. 

'Lagranse:    La  Crete  Ancienne,  p.  63. 

•Burrows:     Discoveries  in  Crete,  p.  36. 

"Baikie:     Sea-Kings  of  Crete,  pp.  127-128. 

"lb.,  p.  12C. 


Period  of  Aegean  Civilization  9 

represented  and  three  of  the  company  have  their  mouths  open  as 
though  they  were  singing.^ 

These  glimpses  of  what  constituted  the  music  of  that  age  show 
us  the  two  principal  instruments  of  the  historic  period  fully  devel- 
oped and  some  form  of  choral  singing  and  furthermore  music  as 
having  its  part  in  religious  rites.  To  play  the  seven-stringed  lyre  or 
the  double  flute  or  to  sing  acceptably  in  a  chorus  required  training. 
Such  training  would  be  a  part  of  the  education  of  the  Minoan  people, 
whether  it  was  general  or  specialized.  Listening  to  such  music  would 
also  have  an  educational  influence  on  others  than  the  performers. 

As  for  the  art  of  this  age,  there  are  three  things  that  impress 
us — its  variety,  the  abundance  of  artistic  objects,  and  the  originality 
and  spirit  of  the  artists.  The  variety  can  briefly  be  indicated  by 
quoting  from  C.  H.  and  H.  B.  Hawes:  "Painting,  engraving,  sculp- 
ture, bas-relief,  architecture,  the  carving  of  precious  stones,  gold- 
chasing,  moulding,  inlaying,  and  bronze  repousse,  all  were  at- 
tempted."^ The  painting  appears  on  the  walls  of  palaces  and  on 
vases.  The  palaces  themselves  are  good  examples  of  the  architecture. 
Sculpture  is  rarely  employed  except  for  small  objects  like  idols  and 
votive  off"erings.  Reliefs  are  found  to  a  limited  extent.  Gem-cutting 
and  metal-work  were  especially  characteristic  of  the  art  of  this 
period,  the  latter  developing  along  many  lines.  It  is  hard  for  us  to 
conceive  of  the  abundance  of  artistic  objects  that  the  people  of  this 
age  must  have  possessed.  Time,  conquest,  and  the  indifference  of 
later  inhabitants  militated  against  the  survival  of  any  works  of  art. 
Yet  they  have  come  down  to  us  by  the  hundreds.  The  palace  of 
Cnossus  alone  has  yielded  up  a  wealth  of  objects.  Fragments  of 
decorated  vases,  made  in  this  period,  have  been  found  not  only  about 
the  Aegean  Sea,  but  also  in  other  lands  bordering  on  the  Mediter- 
ranean, whither  they  were  carried  in  commerce.^  When  so  much 
has  survived  three  thousand  years,  how  prolific  must  have  been  the 
art  of  Cnossus  or  Hagia  Triada  in  the  days  of  their  glory !  Nor  was 
this  art  crude.  The  wonderful  designs  on  Cretan  vases  derived  from 
vegetable  and  animal  forms  show  a  high  degree  of  decorative  skill. 
The  wall-paintings  in  many  cases  attain  to  an  excellence  that  is 
almost  incredible  for  so  early  a  period.  While  undoubtedly  this 
art  gained  an  initial  impulse  from  Egypt,  at  its  best  it  shows  a  direct 


^Burrows:     Discoveries  in  Crete,  p.  36. 

^Crete,  the  Forerunner  oj  Greece,  p.  110. 

^Evans  in  article  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  on  Crete. 


10  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

inspiration  from  nature.  The  figures  are  full  of  life,  not  the  staid, 
conventionalized  forms  of  Egyptian  or  Mesopotamian  art. 

What  then  is  the  bearing  of  all  this  on  the  education  of  the 
people?  In  the  first  place  many  persons  were  engaged  in  making 
these  varied  works  of  art  and  they  had  to  be  trained  for  it.  Again 
that  such  objects  were  produced  indicates  not  only  high  ideals  and 
efficient  training  in  the  artist,  but  also  a  public  that  could  appreciate 
such  masterpieces.  Also  art  would  be  a  factor  in  the  education  of 
the  youth  growing  up  amid  such  surroundings. 

Something  ought  to  be  said  also  of  industrial  education.  First 
let  us  make  a  concise  statement  of  the  different  industries  in  which 
these  people  engaged.  From  the  facts  before  us  we  may  then  be 
able  to  draw  inferences. 

Let  us  begin  with  the  building  trades.  Stone  was  quarried  and 
walls  were  built  of  it.  The  great  palace  at  Cnossus  shows  the  educa- 
tion and  skill  of  its  builders.^  Parts  of  the  structure  were  several 
stories  in  height.  In  fact  private  houses  seem  to  have  been  often  of 
two  stories  or  even  three,  as  is  shown  by  some  plaques  found  at  Cnos- 
sus representing  a  town^  and  also  by  the  remains  of  a  village  at  Gour- 
nia.'  Engineering  skill  was  shown  in  the  construction  of  a  most 
surprising  system  of  drains  in  the  palace  at  Cnossus.* 

The  Minoan  people  were  doubtless  equally  successful  in  the 
working  of  wood.  Of  course  we  have  no  remains  in  this  material, 
but  a  whole  kit  of  carpenters'  tools  was  found  in  a  house  in  Gournia, 
quite  similar  in  shape  to  the  tools  of  today.'  At  Hagia  Triada  was 
discovered  a  large  saw  that  must  have  belonged  to  a  lumberman.^ 
Wood  was  evidently  used  to  some  extent  in  the  interior  of  the  pal- 
aces.'^  From  the  picture  of  houses  on  the  plaques  above  referred  to 
it  would  appear  that  sometimes  timber  was  used  in  the  walls  of  pri- 
vate houses.* 

Of  the  success  of  the  Minoan  people  in  metal-working  we  have 
already  spoken.  Bronze  was  chiefly  used — copper  mixed  with  ten 
per  cent  of  tin.**    Gold  was  the  precious  metal  most  extensively  em- 


*For   deicription   of  the   palace   see   Annual   of   British   School   at   Athens,   VI-XI.      For   a    briefer 

statement  see  Hawes:     Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  chaps.  IV,  V. 
'Burrows:    Discoveries  in  Crete,  p.  20,  Annual  of  British  School  at  Athens,  VIII,  pp.  15-17. 
'Hawes  I    Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  chap,  VII. 
'Burrows:    Discoveries  in  Crete,  pp.  8-9. 
'Hawes:    Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  p.  37. 
"lb.,  p.  37. 

'Hall:  Aegean  Archaeology,  p.  123. 
•Baikie:  Sea-Kings  of  Crete,  p.  217 
*Hawes:    Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  pp.  38-39. 


Period  of  Aegean  Civilization  11 

ployed,  though  some  objects  were  made  of  silver.  Very  little  iron 
has  been  brought  to  light  in  the  excavations.  This  period  lies  still 
in  the  bronze  age.^  Various  methods  of  working  metal  were  em- 
ployed. At  Gournia  was  found  on  a  forge  a  block  of  schist  with 
moulds  for  casting  chisels,  nails,  and  awls  cut  into  its  sides.^  Small 
bronze  objects  were  apparently  made  by  the  cire  perdue  process.^ 
Repousse  and  inlaid  work  were  employed,  the  most  striking  examples 
being  the  Vaphio  cups  and  the  inlaid  dagger-blades  from  Mycenae. 
These  were  found  to  be  sure  on  the  mainland  of  Greece,  but  they  are 
believed  to  have  been  of  Cretan  origin.*  In  all  these  kinds  of  metal 
work  the  greatest  skill  was  shown,  indicating  a  high  degree  of  edu- 
cation. 

In  manufacturing  of  course  little  was  done,  but  vases  were  made 
in  large  quantities  and  exported.  The  potter's  wheel  was  used.^ 
Spinning  and  weaving  were  carried  on,  as  is  shown  by  the  large 
number  of  spinning-whorls  and  loom  weights  found.^ 

Maritime  occupations  must  have  given  employment  to  many. 
A  number  of  representations  of  ships  have  come  down  to  us^  and 
the  facts  that  Cnossus  had  no  walls  shows  that  its  rulers  must  have 
controlled  the  sea.  Trade  was  carried  on  over  the  sea  extensively, 
as  appears  from  the  finding  of  fragments  of  Minoan  vases  in  various 
places  on  the  shores  of  the  Mediterranean.^  Large  deposits  of  murex 
shells,  mingled  with  other  remains  of  this  period,"  indicate  the  use 
of  the  famous  purple  dye,  the  credit  for  whose  discovery  has  been 
given  to  the  Phoenicians. 

Agriculture  was  somewhat  developed,  as  is  shown  by  the  early 
pictographs.  "Cattle,  sheep,  goats,  and  pigs,  the  plough,  the  barred 
fence,  milk-vessels  suspended  from  yokes,  are  among  the  oldest  pic- 
lure  signs."^°  Sickles  and  stone  mortars  indicate  the  use  of  grain,^^ 
while  the  room  of  the  olive-press  in  the  palace  at  Cnossus^^  and  a 
room  at  Palaikastro,  which  evidently  contained  a  wine-press,  afford 
proof  of  the  cultivation  of  the  olive  and  the  vine.^^ 


'Hall:    Aegean  Archaeology,  chap.  HI. 

^Hawes:     Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  p.  97. 

'Hall:    Aegean  Archaeology,  p.  67. 

*Ib.,  p.  55,  Hawes:     Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  pp.  124,  127. 

»Ib.,  p.  40. 

"lb.,  pp.  27,  37. 

'Hall:    Aegean  Archaeology,  p.  255. 

''Evans  in  article  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  on  Crete. 

^Annual  of  British  School  at  Athens,  IX,  pp.  276-277. 

'"Hawes:    Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  p.  36. 

"lb.,  p.  36. 

'-Baikie:    Sea-Kings  of  Crete,  p.  222. 

•^Hawes:    Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  p.  105. 


12  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

It  was  a  busy  industrial  world  into  which  a  child  of  the  Minoan 
Age  was  born.  He  grew  up  amid  scenes  of  varied  labor.  He  might 
try  his  hand  at  several  different  occupations.  He  would  see  those 
about  him  busied  in  other  ways.  Whatever  educational  value  is  de- 
rived from  dealing  directly  with  the  concrete  in  everyday  life  must 
have  been  gained  by  these  people,  who  came  in  contact  with  a  life 
at  once  simple  and  full  of  activity. 

Any  factor  that  tends  to  broaden  the  mind  may  be  considered 
intellectual  education.  So  it  may  be  well  to  investigate  to  what 
extent  the  people  of  Minoan  Crete  came  in  contact  with  the  rest  of 
the  world.  As  has  been  remarked  before,  Crete  was  a  great  sea 
power  and  its  commerce  extended  out  over  the  sea  in  many  directions. 
Let  us  see  what  proof  there  is  for  this  statement.  In  Egyptian  tombs 
processions  of  Cretans  have  been  represented  bearing  gifts.^  Dr. 
Evans  states  that  pieces  of  Cretan  vases  have  been  found  in  Egypt 
and  the  land  of  the  Philistines  and  he  even  goes  so  far  as  to  say  that 
southern  Italy  and  Sicily  show  traces  of  Minoan  influence  and  in 
late  Minoan  times  from  the  Spanish  coast  to  the  Troad,  in  Asia 
Minor,  Cyprus,  and  Palestine,  from  the  Nile  to  the  mouth  of  the 
Po  similar  forms  of  Minoan  civilization  were  diffused.^  On  the 
Aegean  sites  themselves  evidence  has  been  found.  A  bronze  statuette 
of  an  Egyptian  god  was  discovered  in  the  Dictaean  Cave.^  The  pres- 
ence of  gold,  silver,  and  ivory  suggest  commerce.  Hence  we  may 
infer  that  life  even  in  this  early  period  was  not  altogether  provin- 
cial.   Man  learned  through  influences  coming  from  foreign  lands. 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

We  now  turn  to  the  physical  education  of  the  Minoan  people. 
Among  their  amusements  and  in  their  preparations  for  war  we  shall 
find  evidence  of  the  training  of  the  body. 

In  the  first  place  we  may  notice  dancing.  A  fresco  in  the  palace 
at  Cnossus  shows  a  group  of  dancing  girls.*  Possibly  the  theatral 
areas  in  the  palaces  at  Cnossus,  Phaestus,^  and  Gournia*^  were  made 
that  spectators  might  watch  some  such  form  of  entertainment.  These 
rude  theatres  were  formed  by  flights  of  steps  overlooking  a  paved 


'Hall :    Aegean  Archaeology,  pp.  58-59. 
"Encyclopaedia  Britannica,  article  on  Crete. 
^Annual  of  British  School  at  Athens,  VI,  p.   107. 
•Hawes:    Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  p.  60. 
"Burrows:     Discoveries  in  Crete,  p.  28. 
'Hawet:    Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  p.  93. 


Period  of  Aegean  Civilization  13 

floor.  It  might  be  that  these  were  for  boxing  exhibitions.^  A  vase 
from  Hagia  Triada  shows  boxers  in  various  positions^  and  another 
relief  found  in  Cnossus  shows  similar  scenes.^  A  more  vigorous  form 
of  athletic  exercise  however  was  the  bull-grappling,  represented  per- 
haps best  in  a  wall-painting  in  the  palace  at  Cnossus.*  It  consisted 
in  seizing  a  bull  by  the  horns,  as  he  made  his  attack,  and  vaulting 
over  his  back.  It  required  the  greatest  agility  as  well  as  practice  and 
courage. 

Hunting  is  a  branch  of  sport  that  affords  amusement,  exercise, 
and  training  for  war  at  the  same  time.  The  following  from  Hall's 
Aegean  Archaeology  is  suggestive  along  this  line:  "The  Aegean  was 
also  a  hunter,  as  we  know  from  his  pictures  of  the  chase  and  his  wor- 
ship of  the  deities  of  venery.  His  wild-goat  or  ibex  .  .  .  was 
a  splendid  quarry,  and  in  mainland  Greece  the  lion  may  still  have 
fallen  to  his  sword.  ...  He  domesticated  the  dog  for  the 
chase."^ 

To  what  extent  training  for  war  was  recognized  as  an  object  of 
physical  education  it  would  be  hard  to  say.  The  lack  of  protecting 
walls  at  Cnossus''  would  indicate  that  while  there  may  have  been 
fighting  on  the  sea,  the  island  was  reasonably  safe.  Apparently  the 
people  lived  a  peaceful  life  without  fear  of  warlike  invasion.  The 
fact  that  the  palace  was  burned  and  sacked^  however  indicates  that 
war  could  enter  and  do  its  destructive  work.  The  weapons  found  on 
Cretan  sites  show  that  the  island  was  not  wholly  unprepared  for 
such  attacks.^  Weapons  and  representations  of  warriors  are  found, 
which  indicate  the  methods  of  fighting.  The  chariot,  spear,  sword, 
dagger,  bow  and  arrow  were  used.®  These  weapons  imply  skill  and 
strength  and  long  training  on  the  part  of  the  warriors.  Their  use 
required  muscles  obedient  to  the  will  and  not  the  mere  pulling  of  a 
trigger.    Hence  a  splendid  physique  would  be  developed. 


^Burrows:    Discoveries  in  Crete,  pp.  5-6. 

'Hall:    Aegean  Archaeology,  pp.  61-62. 

^Annual  of  British  School  at  Athens,  VU,  p.  95. 

^Burrows:     Discoveries  in  Crete,  pp.  21-22. 

''Pages  235-256. 

"Burrows:     Discoveries  in  Crete,  p.   11. 

'Hawes:    Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  p.  68. 

^Baikie:     Sea-Kings  of  Crete,  p.  225. 

"Hall:    Aegean  Archaeology,  pp.  247-252. 


14         Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

MORAL  EDUCATION 

We  have  very  little  evidence  in  regard  to  the  ideas  of  morality 
of  the  Minoan  people.  The  bull-grappling  may  indicate  cruelty;  the 
worship  of  the  great  eastern  goddess  (Astarte)^  and  the  fact  that  she 
is  often  represented  by  little  nude  idols-  may  denote  licentiousness; 
the  almost  oriental  luxury  of  life  in  the  palace  may  show  degeneracy.' 
On  the  other  hand  the  lack  of  walls  in  the  Cretan  cities  would  seem 
to  prove  that  the  people  were  not  given  to  revolt  and  their  industry 
and  skill  are  shown  in  the  results  of  their  labor.  Of  their  ideals 
beyond  this  be  know  little  or  nothing. 

Their  religion,  as  is  usual  with  primitive  people,  probably  had 
little  connection  with  morality.  What  we  know  of  it  certainly  does 
not  make  it  appear  an  incentive  to  right  action.  Even  so  religion 
may  be  a  factor  in  education.  It  will  be  well  therefore  for  us  to 
consider  briefly  what  their  religion  was  like. 

In  the  first  place  the  Minoan  people  apparently  believed  in  the 
future  life,  as  is  attested  by  their  surrounding  the  body  in  the  grave 
with  various  articles  such  as  were  of  use  in  this  world,  as  for  exam- 
ple, arms.* 

As  to  their  objects  of  worship  the  principal  deity  seems  to  have 
been  the  great  mother  goddess.^  Doves  are  associated  with  her  in 
her  capacity  as  queen  of  the  air.  Sometimes  she  is  represented  with 
wild  beasts,  as  a  goddess  on  earth,  and  sometimes  her  form  is  twined 
with  snakes,  indicating  a  chthonian  divinity. **  There  was  also  a  male 
deity  subordinate  to  her.  The  double  axe  appears  to  be  his  emblem.' 
The  later  Greeks  apparently  identified  their  Zeus  with  this  god  and 
told  how  he  was  born  in  Crete.*^  Other  sacred  figures  appear  as  mon- 
sters with  mixed  animal  forms,  as  a  woman's  body  with  a  bird's  head 
or  an  animal's  legs,  the  head  and  breast  of  a  woman  and  a  butterfly's 
wings." 

We  must  next  ask  where  and  how  these  deities  were  worshiped. 
We  are  dealing  with  a  period  so  early  that  we  must  not  assume  the 
use  of  temples.    Certain  caves  were  considered  holy  places.    In  the 


'Hall:    Aegean  Archaeology,  p.  150. 

'Dussaud:    Les  Civilizations  Prehelleniques  dans  le  Bassin  de  la  Mer  Egee,  p.  363. 

'Hall:     Aegean  Atchaeology,  p.  254. 

♦Kairbanks:     Greek  Religion,  pp.   198-199. 

'Hail:     Aegean  Archaeology,  p.  150.  ' 

"Fairbanks:    Greek  Religion,  p.  £09. 

'For  different   views   concerning    this   point   see   Burrows:     Discoveries   in   Crete,    pp.    112-114,   and 

Hawcs:    Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  pp.  137-138. 
"Hall:    Aegean  Archaeology,  pp.  147-148. 
'Dussaud:    Let  Civilizations  PiehelUniques  dans  le  Bassin  de  la  Mer  &gee,  pp.  380-385. 


Period  of  Aegean  Civilization  15 

Dictsean  Cave  a  sacrificial  table  was  found  and  numerous  votive 
offerings,^  Small  shrines  seem  to  have  been  the  commonest  places 
of  worship.  In  the  center  of  the  town  of  Gournia  was  an  enclosure 
twelve  feet  suqare.  Here  were  found  a  terra-cotta  figure  of  a  god- 
dess twined  with  snakes,  a  three-legged  altar-table,  horns  of  conse- 
cration, and  a  piece  of  a  vase  with  the  figure  of  the  double  axe  upon 
it.^  In  the  palace  at  Cnossus  there  was  a  room  that  must  have  been 
a  shrine,  as  is  shown  by  the  objects  found  in  it.^  Such  rooms  have 
been  excavated  also  in  other  Cretan  palaces.* 

Some  representations  of  worship  have  come  down  to  us.  The 
worshiper  stands  with  one  hand  raised  to  his  brow.^  Sacrifices  were 
offered  and  libations  poured."  The  scenes  on  the  Hagia  Triada  sar- 
cophagus, already  mentioned,  would  indicate  that  music  was  used 
in  connection  with  the  ritual,  at  any  rate  when  it  had  reference  to 
the  dead.^ 

Such  in  brief  are  the  facts  we  possess  in  regard  to  the  religion 
of  the  Minoan  period.  We  should  add  that  those  who  worshiped  and 
performed  the  duties  that  their  religion  required  of  them  undoubtedly 
found  here  something  of  educational  value. 

In  our  discussion  of  the  subject  matter  of  education  we  have 
seen  that  it  included  reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  business  forms, 
music,  art,  industrial  education,  physical  training,  the  arts  of  war, 
and  moral  and  religious  instruction.  Lmited  though  it  may  have 
been  in  each  of  these  fields,  the  remarkable  thing  is  that  these  early 
people  had  so  much  to  pass  on  to  each  new  generation. 


'Fairbanks:    Greek  Religion,  p.  200. 

-Hawes:     Crete,  the  Forerunner  of  Greece,  pp.  97-98. 

'Hall:     Aegean  Archaeology,  p.  154. 

^Fairbanks:     Greek  Religion,  p.  202. 

'Hall:    Aegean  Archaeology,  pp.  67-68. 

^Baikie:    Sea-Kingt  of  Crete,  p.  250. 

'lb.,  p.  128. 


16  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

THE  MYCENAEAN  AGE 

Up  to  this  point  we  have  been  considering  education  in  the 
Minoan  period.  We  now  turn  to  the  Mycenaean  Age  to  continue  our 
investigations,  to  trace  the  development  in  the  subject  matter  that 
was  taught  and  the  methods  of  instruction  employed.  The  question 
arises  whether  these  may  be  regarded  as  unchanged  during  the 
Mycenaean  Age.  This  latter  period  comes  near  the  close  of  the  age 
of  Aegean  civilization,  when  the  chief  centers  were  to  be  found  on 
the  mainland  of  Greece.  We  may  inquire  what  relation  its  culture 
bore  to  that  of  the  earlier  epoch.  H.  Dussaud  answers  this  question 
in  these  words:  "La  civilisation  mycenienne  apparait  aujourd'hui 
comme  le  prolongement,  quelques-uns  disent  la  decadence,  de  la 
civilisation  minoenne  contemporaine  des  palais  de  Cnosse  et  de 
Plmestos"^ 

In  general  the  culture  and  therefore  the  education  were  much 
the  same.  Some  peculiarities  there  were,  due  to  the  different  loca- 
tion of  the  Mycenaean  centers  and  the  later  date  of  their  civilization, 
but  at  this  time  the  mainland  of  Greece  obtained  its  inspiration  for 
the  higher  things  of  life  from  Crete  and  the  term,  Late  Minoan,  is 
often  made  to  include  the  Mycenaean  Age.  H.  R.  Hall  in  his  Aegean 
Archaeology  says  that  the  latter  part  of  the  Mycenaean  period  was 
so  strongly  influenced  by  the  contemporary  Cretan  culture  that  their 
products  were  practically  identical.^ 

We  need  then  in  discussing  Mycensean  education  to  note  only 
those  points  of  difference  suggested  by  archaeological  discoveries 
made  on  the  different  sites,  remembering  however  that  the  fact  that 
similar  objects  may  not  have  been  found  in  Crete  and  on  the  main- 
land of  Greece  does  not  necessarily  mean  that  they  did  not  exist  in 
both   places. 

The,  ideals  of  education  and  the  methods  of  instruction  were 
doubtless  similar,  since  the  civilization  shows  so  great  similarity. 
In  considering  the  subject  matter  of  education  we  are  met  at  once 
by  the  fact  that  very  few  traces  of  linear  writing  belonging  to  the 
Mycenaean  Age  have  been  found  on  the  mainland  of  Greece.  J.  I. 
Manatt  writing  in  1896  says:  "In  Greece  at  least  the  Mycenaean 
epoch  has  been  pretty  thoroughly  explored,  and  this  exploration  has 
yielded  us  a  great  mass  of  monuments — utensils,  ornaments  and  other 
products  of  Mycenaean  art;  and  these  afford  negative  proof  against 


'Z.e«  CitiilUations  PrehelUniques  dans  le  liassin  de  la  Mer  Egee,  pp.  199-200. 
''Page  5. 


Period  of  Aegean  Civilization  17 

the  existence  of  writing.  Of  all  the  finds  at  Mycenae  itself  only  three 
objects  bear  inscriptions."^ 

We  must  remember  that  this  was  written  before  Dr.  Evans' 
discoveries  in  Cnossus.  In  view  of  these  the  natural  inference  would 
be  that  writing  must  have  been  carried  to  Greece  along  with  the  other 
arts.  H.  R.  Hall  maintains  that  the  fact  that  so  few  traces  of  writing 
have  been  found  in  Mycenae  is  due  only  to  chance.^  On  the  other 
hand  K.  J.  Beloch  in  his  Griechische  Geschichte  states  his  belief  that 
the  apparent  lack  of  the  use  of  writing  in  Mycenaean  Greece  was 
owing  to  the  fact  that  trade  had  not  developed  enough  at  that  time 
so  that  the  need  of  this  means  of  communicaion  was  felt.^ 

This  much  may  be  said:  the  scarcity  of  inscriptions  found  on 
the  mainland  compared  with  their  abundance  in  Crete  would  show 
that,  if  writing  were  employed  at  all  in  the  Mycenaean  centers,  its 
use  was  far  less  general  than  in  Crete.  From  this  we  may  form  our 
opinion  as  to  its  place  in  Mycenaean  education. 

We  have  no  evidence  of  the  use  at  this  time  of  a  decimal  system 
on  the  mainland  such  as  was  developed  in  Crete,  but  simple  arithmet- 
ical operations  were  performed,  as  is  shown  by  the  presence  of 
scales  in  one  of  the  shaft-graves  at  Mycenae.*  It  has  been  pointed  out 
in  The  Mycenaean  Age  by  Tsountas  and  Manatt  that  scales  are  needed 
especially  when  coinage  does  not  exist.^ 

In  art  Mycenaean  Greece  was  a  worthy  successor  to  Crete.  In 
reliefs  in  stone  and  in  metal  work  it  perhaps  surpassed  the  latter. 
Nothing  has  been  found  there  to  compare  with  the  lion-gate  relief. 
Other  examples  are  the  slabs  found  above  the  shaft-graves.''  From 
these  same  graves  we  get  objects  that  show  the  metal- worker's  skill. 
Browne  in  his  Homeric  Study  enumerates  the  articles  in  one  grave : — 
six  diadems,  fifteen  pendants,  eleven  neck-coils,  eight  hair  orna- 
ments, ten  gold  grasshoppers  with  gold  chains,  one  butterfly,  four 
griflSns,  four  lions,  ten  ornaments  with  stags,  ten  with  lions,  three 
intaglios,  two  pairs  of  gold  scales,  fifty-one  embossed  ornaments, 
and  more  than  seven  hundred  ornaments  for  attaching  to  clothes. 
These  were  all  of  gold.  There  were  other  objects  of  silver  or  of 
silver  plated  with  gold  and  of  bronze  and  besides  beads  cut  from 


•Tsountas  and  Manatt :    Mycenaean  Age,  p.  284. 

^Aegean  Archaeology,  p.  212. 

3Vol.  I,  p.  125. 

*Schuhchhardt :    Schliemann's  Excavations,  p.  205. 

^Page  105. 

°Schucbbardt:    Schliemann's  Excavations,  pp.  167-176. 


18  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

amber.^  Add  to  these  the  objects  found  in  other  graves  and  on  other 
sites  and  we  have  a  variety  of  metal  work  that  indicates  something 
of  the  training  and  education  necessary  for  the  Mycenaean  artist. 
We  must  not  forget  too  the  wall  paintings  and  the  pottery  found  on 
Mycenaean  sites.  In  passing  it  should  be  said  that  some  of  this  art 
may  have  been  the  work  of  Cretans  brought  to  Greece  at  the  behest 
of  princes  living  there-  and  some  artistic  objects  may  have  been 
imported.^  Though  we  may  grant  this,  still  the  abundance  of  works 
of  art  found  in  the  Mycenaean  centers  indicates  the  skillful  and  pro- 
lific labors  of  the  native  artists  as  well. 

The  industrial  education  of  the  Mycenaean  Greeks  may  be  rated 
as  high  as  that  of  the  Cretans,  though  their  achievements  may  differ. 
The  walls  of  Tiryns  containing  enormous  stones  that  had  to  be 
transported  a  considerable  distance,  the  construction  of  the  cham- 
bers in  these  walls,  the  ashlar  construction  formed  of  dressed  stone 
at  Mycenae,  the  palaces  on  both  citadels,  and  the  beehive  tombs  be- 
speak the  skill  of  the  builders.  The  drainage  canals  at  Lake  Copais* 
and  the  stone  bridges  in  the  Peloponnesus^  show  considerable  ad- 
vance in  engineering. 

These  bridges  and  the  roads  leading  to  them  indicate  the  estab- 
lishment of  trade  routes  overland.  Commerce  by  sea  is  proved  by 
the  finding  of  Mycenaean  fibulae  in  Italy,  Hungary,  Bosnia,  and  Swit- 
zerland.'' This  contact  with  the  inhabitants  of  other  places  would 
have  a  broadening  influence  on  the  minds  of  any  people,  as  their 
commerce  also  benefited  the  Cretans. 

Agriculture  is  another  educational  factor.  It  was  somewhat 
developed  at  this  time.  Of  domesticated  animals  we  know  that  the 
Mycenaean  Greeks  had  the  cow,  the  horse,  the  ass,  the  goat,  the  sheep, 
the  dog.^  Crops  were  grown.  Grain  and  peas  have  been  found  in 
large  storage  jars  in  the  Mycenaean  stratum  at  Troy,  as  well  as  small 
mills  for  grading  the  grain.^  Difference  in  climate  may  have  made 
agriculture  in  Mycenaean  Greece  unlike  in  some  respects  what  it  was 
in  Crete,  but  in  both  places  civilization  was  influenced  for  good  by 
the  existence  of  a  farmer  class. 

Physical  training  was  probably  much  the  same  in  the  Minoan 


'Page  251. 

'Dussaud :    Les  Civilizations  PreheUiniques  dans  le  Bassin  de  la  Mer  tgee,  p.  200. 

*Hall:    Aegean  Archaeology,  p.  55.  ' 

*T8ounta8  and  Manatt:    Mycenaean  Age,  pp.  374-375. 

"lb.,  p.  36. 

•lb.,  p.  359. 

'lb.,  p.  352. 

•lb.,  p.  353. 


Period  of  Aegean  Civilization  19 

and  Mycenasan  periods.  The  sport  of  bull-grappling  is  depicted  in 
a  fresco  from  the  palace  at  Tiryns^  and  other  frescos  from  the  same 
place  represent  hunting  scenes,^ 

Warfare  on  land  was  probably  more  common  on  the  mainland 
of  Greece,  as  is  indicated  by  the  citadel  walls  of  Tiryns  and  Mycenae, 
while  Cnossus  has  none.  Citizens  must  have  been  trained  to  fight. 
Weapons  have  been  found  in  graves  and  are  represented  in  numerous 
works  of  art.  Of  these  we  may  mention  the  Warrior  Vase,^  which 
shows  armor  more  like  that  of  the  later  Greeks,  but  on  the  inlaid 
dagger-blades,  which  are  however  perhaps  Cretan  works  of  art,  large 
shields  similar  to  the  Cretan  ones  occur. 

In  religion  a  greater  development  may  be  shown  in  the  Myce- 
naean Age,  for  now  apparently  the  temple  appeared.  On  a  little  gold 
ornament  discovered  at  Mycenae  there  is  an  unmistakable  representa- 
tion of  a  temple.*  At  Troy  and  at  Neandria  nearby  the  ruins  have 
been  found  of  what  may  once  have  been  such  buildings.^  Worship 
had  seemingly  become  better  organized  and  therefore  we  may  assume 
that  religion  had  a  more  prominent  part  in  education.  The  female 
goddess  is  often  represented,  but  the  male  divinity,  who  seems  to 
have  been  peculiarly  Cretan,  has  a  very  subordinate  place. 

Thus  we  have  noted  briefly  the  principal  points  of  dissimilarity 
in  those  educational  factors  arising  out  of  the  civilization  of  the 
Mycenaean  and  the  Minoan  periods.  They  are  not  very  marked.  This 
shows  that  we  are  dealing  with  the  same  general  period.  For  the 
sake  of  completeness,  however,  we  have  sought  to  discuss  by  itself 
the  education  of  the  Mycenaean  Age. 


'lb.,  p.  51. 

^Hall:    Aegean  Archaeology,  pp.  190-194. 

^Tsountas  and  Manatt :     Mycenaean  Age,  opposite  p.  190. 

^Schuchhardt :     Schliemann's  Excavations,  pp.   199-201. 

^Tsountas  and  Manatt:    Mycenaean  Age,  pp.  306-307, 


20         Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

CHARACTERISTICS  OF  THE  EDUCATION  OF  THE 
PERIOD  OF  AEGEAN  CIVILIZATION 

We  have  tried  in  the  preceding  pages  to  reconstruct  from  the 
sources  that  we  have  at  hand  the  education  of  the  Aegean  period.  The 
question  might  arise — in  what  does  it  differ  from  the  education  of 
other  primitive  people  or  from  that  of  other  nations  of  that  epoch? 

First  we  may  consider  the  primitive  peoples  of  other  times. 
Take  the  early  Germans  as  pictured  by  Tacitus.  Where  is  the  art, 
the  extensive  building  activity,  the  numerous  written  documents? 
WTiere  is  the  contact  with  other  people,  the  sea-faring  life,  the  devel- 
opment of  varied  occupations?  We  find  them  no  more  among  the 
American  Indians  or  among  the  tribes  of  central  Africa.  If  we  call 
the  people  who  developed  the  Aegean  civilization  primitive  at  all, 
they  certainly  were  unlike  the  examples  of  such  nations  which  imme- 
diately occur  to  the  mind. 

If  we  compare  them  with  the  ancient  Egyptians,  we  would  feel 
that  there  was  a  different  atmosphere  in  Crete  and  Mycenae  than  in 
the  land  of  the  Nile.  In  Egypt  autocracy  flaunts  itself,  the  power 
of  the  priests  is  as  great  as  that  of  the  king  and  the  whole  country  is 
bound  by  religious  conservatism,  which  controls  all  life  and  art.  We 
have  not  found  these  characteristics  among  the  people  of  the  Aegean 
Age,  and  it  would  go  without  saying  that  education  in  the  two  coun- 
tries would  differ  very  radically,  when  the  spirit  of  the  one  was  so 
totally  unlike  that  of  the  other. 

Perhaps  in  a  greater  degree  we  would  note  a  difference  between 
the  Aegean  peoples  and  those  of  Mesopotamia.  The  kings  of  the 
latter  country  lived  in  oriental  seclusion,  but  the  palace  of  Cnossus 
had  its  central  court  easy  of  access  for  the  people  and  at  Tiryns  and 
Mycenae  the  citadel,  of  which  the  palace  was  a  part,  served  as  a 
place  of  refuge  for  the  people  of  the  surrounding  villages  in  time  of 
war.  Again  compare  the  stiff,  conventional,  heavily  draped  forms 
of  Assyrian  art  with  the  lion  hunt  on  the  dagger-blade  from  Mycenae 
or  the  scenes  on  the  Vaphio  cups,  so  full  of  life  as  they  are.  Can  we 
hesitate  to  give  the  preference  to  the  education  of  a  people  who  could 
produce  works  of  art  so  free  from  all  the  fetters  of  convention  and 
so  instinct  with  vitality? 

Phoenicia  may  next  be  considered.  It  was  like  Crete  the  home 
of  a  sea-faring  people,  but  all  agree  that  the  Phoenicians  were  not 
characterized  by  great  originality,  that  they  were  a  carrying  nation. 
They  took  what  they  pleased  from  other  nations,  adapted  it  to  their 


Period  of  Aegean  Civilzation  21 

uses  and  then  carried  it  far  and  wide  through  their  commerce.  The 
civilization  of  the  Aegean  peoples  had  far  more  of  an  indigenous 
nature.  So  if  we  compare  the  education  of  the  two  nations  as  judged 
by  results,  we  would  say  that  in  the  one  case  it  made  them  skillful 
adaptors  and  in  the  other  awakened  a  spirit  of  originality. 

So  we  maintain  that  education  in  Greece  during  the  period  of 
Aegean  civilization  was  something  distinct  from  that  of  other  prim- 
itive peoples  and  from  that  of  the  nations  about  them,  that  in  its 
spirit  it  was  democratic,  original,  and  vital  and  developed  the  whole 
man,  giving  him  mental  alertness,  physical  training,  and  some  moral 
and  religious  instruction. 


i 


THE  EARLY  LYRIC  PERIOD 

In  our  discussion  of  the  education  of  early  Greece  let  us  pas* 
by  that  of  the  Homeric  Age,  which  has  been  discussed  by  the  writer 
in  an  earlier  paper,  and  take  up  the  consideration  of  the  educational 
development  during  the  lyric  period.  We  may  begin  with  what  has 
been  commonly  taken  as  the  first  authentic  date  in  Greek  history, 
776  B.  C.,  and  close  with  the  year  525. 

As  the  earlier  part  of  this  period  differs  much  from  the  latter  in 
its  nature,  its  culture,  and  its  spirit,  we  shall  do  well  to  divide  the 
period  into  two  parts,  making  the  year  610  the  point  of  division,  for 
at  about  that  date  there  was  almost  a  renaissance  in  the  aesthetic,  intel- 
lectual, and  spiritual  life  of  the  Greek  people. 

In  taking  up  the  discussion  of  this  early  lyric  period  we  shall 
note  first  some  of  the  points  of  difference  between  it  and  the  Homeric 
Age,  next  we  shall  try  to  trace  the  educational  ideals  of  the  people 
and  the  means  used  to  realize  those  ideals.  Then  as  we  did  with  the 
Minoan  period,  we  shall  consider  the  subject  matter  of  education 
along  intellectual,  physical,  and  moral  lines  and  finally  we  shall 
discuss  the  date  of  the  first  appearance  of  schools. 

For  the  years  immediately  following  776  B.  C.  our  sources  are 
even  more  limited  than  they  would  be  for  the  Homeric  Age.  For 
the  latter  we  have  the  long  epic  poems,  the  Iliad  and  the  Odyssey,  but 
in  the  succeeding  epoch  we  have  only  fragments  of  the  Epic  Cycle, 
the  whole  of  the  Hesiodic  Works  and  Days  and  Theogony,  the  Ho- 
meric Hymns,  and  fragments  from  the  early  elegiac,  iambic,  and 
lyric  poets.  In  addition  to  these  contemporary  sources  there  are 
statements  made  by  Herodotus  and  Thucydides,  there  are  biographies 
of  early  heroes  by  Plutarch  and  others  and  more  or  less  incidental 
references  in  Plato,  Aristotle,  and  other  writers. 

A  short  bibliography  of  the  modern  works  which  we  have  used 
most  follows: 

K.  J.  Beloch:    Griechische  Geschichte. 

G.  Busolt:    Griechische  Geschichte. 

A.  Fairbanks:     Handbook  of  Greek  Religion, 

K.  J.  Freeman:    Schools  of  Hellas. 

G.  Grote:     History  of  Greece. 

A.  Holm:    History  of  Greece. 

J.  P.  Mahaffy :    History  of  Classical  Greek  Literature. 

E.  Meyer:    Geschichte  des  Alter tums. 

22 


Early  Lyric  Period  23 

W.  Mure:  Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of 
Ancient  Greece. 

K.  Schmidt:     Geschichte  der  Pddagogik. 

The  names  of  other  works  used  will  be  found  in  the  general 
bibliography. 

Following  our  outline  given  above,  we  shall  now  consider  some 
of  the  changes  that  were  taking  place,  especially  those  that  would 
affect  education.  In  the  first  place  civilization  was  advancing.  G. 
W.  Warr  in  his  Creek  Epic  points  this  out  with  reference  to  the  Works 
and  Days  as  follows: 

"As  regards  civilization,  though  the  Hesiodic  society  is  poor  on 
the  material  side  compared  with  the  Homeric,  it  is  far  less  primitive. 
In  Homer  we  have  the  'common  field'  along  with  the  king's  temenos, 
or  great  pastures  tended  by  thralls  with  occasional  allotments:  in 
Hesiod  land  is  held  in  private  property,  divided  by  bequest  (36-7) 
and  freely  bought  and  sold  (336-41).  Iron  is  in  common  use,  and 
it  stands  as  the  symbol  of  the  age  itself.  Justice  is  administered  in 
a  regular  agora,  where  the  idler  'listens'  for  amusement.  There  is 
similar  significance  in  the  mention  of  the  club-feast  (773),  the  tav- 
ern (493),  the  courtesan  (373),  the  mendicant  (26),  the  night- 
robber  (605).  Slavery  and  piracy,  the  inevitable  incidents  of  Ho- 
meric warfare,  have  declined;  the  word  'thrall'  has  lost  its  old 
meaning,  for  the  poorest  laborer  is  a  freeman.  Hesiod  himself, 
lastly,  represents  a  middle  class  of  yeomanry  which  has  no  counter- 
part in  the  Homeric  Age."^ 

One  important  feature  in  the  evolution  that  was  taking  place  was 
the  change  in  government.  The  Homeric  monarchies  were  becoming 
oligarchies  in  most  of  the  states.  This  meant  the  extension  of  power 
to  a  greater  number  and  if  a  ruler  needs  to  be  an  educated  man,  then 
in  an  aristocratic  government  all  the  nobles  need  ability  and  train- 
ing to  enable  them  to  maintain  their  standing  and  to  take  their  part 
in  the  government.  M.  W.  Duncker  in  his  History  of  Greece  dwells 
particularly  on  this.  He  says  that  the  high  ideals  of  nobility  among 
the  aristocracy  led  to  the  instruction  of  their  youth  in  gymnastic  and 
martial  exercises,  in  songs  and  choruses,  and  in  intercourse  with 
older  men.  The  nobles  need  help  from  the  gods,  so  their  youth 
received  a  religious  education,  consisting  in  the  learning  of  religious 
poetry  and  music  and  of  the  wise  maxims  found  in  the  elegies.    They 


'Warr:    Greek  Epic,  p.  233. 


24  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

practised  singing  the  choral  lyric  and  then  took  part  in  the  worship 
of  the  god.  So  the  young  nobles  would  receive,  on  account  of  their 
station  and  the  duties  to  devolve  upon  them,  an  education  that  in- 
cluded intellectual,  physical,  and  moral  features.  "The  result  of 
this  training  is  agility,  strength,  and  beauty  of  body  and  a  noble 
temper  and  attitude  of  the  soul."^  This  training  was  much  like  that 
of  the  Homeric  Age,  but  it  was  now  extended  to  a  larger  number. 

In  the  home  life  of  the  people  there  were  changes  affecting 
their  education.  The  position  of  woman  seems  distinctly  lower. 
After  reading  of  Andromache,  Penelope,  Arete,  and  Nausicaa  in 
the  Homeric  poems,  one  notes  a  marked  difference  in  the  concep- 
tion of  woman  in  the  writings  of  Hesiod  and  Semonides  of  Amorgus. 
Hesiod  tells  the  familiar  story  of  Pandora  in  the  Works  and  Days.^ 
The  story  also  appears  in  the  Theogony.^  Scholars  are  not  agreed 
as  to  whether  the  latter  poem  was  composed  by  Hesiod,*  but  if  it  was 
not,  it  belongs  to  his  school  and  is  of  a  not  much  later  date  than  the 
Works  and  Days.  If  it  is  by  another  author,  it  strengthens  the  case 
against  the  Boeotian  women,  for  it  shows  that  such  views  were  not 
confined  to  one  man.  In  the  account  in  the  Theogony  this  statement 
is  added: 

o)9  S'ai/TO)?  avSpecrcrt  kukov  Ovrjrolci  yvvaiKaii 

Zevf  infn^pefieTr]'?  6riK€.' 

"But  the  high  thundering  Zeus  thus  brought  an  evil  upon  mortal 
men,  woman." 

Semonides  of  Amorgus  lived  perhaps  a  generation  after  the 
Theogony  was  composed.  In  his  famous  satire  on  women  he  com- 
pares different  classes  to  a  hog,  a  fox,  a  dog,  to  mud,  to  the  sea,  to  a 
donkey,  a  pole-cat,  to  a  thoroughbred  horse,  an  ape,  to  a  bee.**  For 
only  the  last  class  does  he  have  a  good  word.  His  ideal  for  woman 
seems  to  be  the  drudge,  who  devotes  herself  to  the  work  of  the  house- 
hold.   He  sums  up  the  whole  matter  by  saying: 

Zeis  <yap  fi^yiarov  tout'  eTroirjo-ev  kukov^ 

yvvatKa<iJ 
"For  Zeus  made  this  greatest  evil,  woman."     On  reading  this  de- 
scription or  caricature  of  the  women  of  the  poet's  day,  one  cannot 

Wol.  II,  pp.  217-221. 

"Lines  60-105. 

•Lines  570-602. 

•Kor  discussion  of  this  point  ace  Mahaffy:     History  of  Classical  Greek  Literature,  I,  pp.  109-110. 

"Lines  600-601. 

'Fragments,  No.  7. 

'Lines  96-97. 


Early  Lyric  Period  25 

but  wonder  what  sort  of  training  the  children  received  in  homes  pre- 
sided over  by  such  mothers. 

In  this  new  period  there  was  a  change  in  the  spirit  and  ideals  of 
the  people.  Men  were  becoming  more  reflective,  as  is  shown  by  the 
tone  of  their  literature,  especially  the  Works  and  Days  and  the  elegiac 
and  iambic  poetry.  There  is  more  of  individuality.  The  author 
appears  in  his  works,  as  he  did  not  in  the  Homeric  poems.^  At  the 
same  time  with  this  rise  of  individualism  there  was  a  growing  feel- 
ing for  the  unity  of  the  Greek  race.  The  term,  Hellenic,  for  all 
Greeks  appears  in  the  Works  and  Days^  and  in  Archilochus.^  This 
feeling  was  further  fostered  by  the  common  festivals  at  Delos,  Olym- 
pia,  and  elsewhere,  by  leagues  of  states  to  protect  a  common  place 
of  worship,  as  at  Calaurea,  an  island  in  the  Saronic  Gulf,*  and  at 
Delphi,^  by  belief  in  the  same  religion,  that  was  becoming  less  a 
worship  of  local  gods,"  and  by  the  growing  literature  in  their  one 
language. 

Trade  and  commercial  life  were  transforming  the  cities  and 
bringing  wealth  into  new  hands  and  establishing  ideals  different 
from  those  of  the  Homeric  Age.  The  founding  of  colonies  was  tak- 
ing Greeks  far  afield  and  introducing  them  to  new  sights  and  ways 
of  living. 

Religion  was  changing.  The  worship  of  Dionysus  had  come  in 
from  the  East  with  its  orgiastic  features.^  States  were  participating 
in  religion  and  people  were  taking  more  interest  in  religious  fes- 
tivals.* Temples  were  being  built.'*  The  ideas  of  righteousness  and 
justice  were  coming  to  be  associated  more  with  religion  and  a  new 
morality  was  developing.^" 

It  need  not  be  said  that  these  influences  had  their  effect  on  edu- 
cation. The  latter  could  not  remain  long  what  it  had  been  during 
the  Homeric  Age.  The  demand  for  better  trained  men  to  live  in  this 
new  era  and  the  need  of  passing  on  to  posterity  the  increasing  knowl- 
edge of  each  generation  were  to  result  in  a  more  systematic  and 
extensive  education  of  the  young. 

Having  thus  traced  the  characteristics  of  the  early  lyric  period. 


'For  example  see  Works  and  Days,  U,  37-41. 

^Line  653. 

'Fragments,  No.  49. 

■•Beloch:    Griechische  Geschichte,  I,  p.  329. 

^Ib.,  pp.  330-331. 

"Meyer:     Geschichte  des  Altertums,  I,  p.  596. 

'Fairbanks:    Greek  Religion,  pp.  240-244. 

"Meyer:    Geschichte  des  Altertums,  II,  p.  581. 

"lb.,  p.  594. 

'"Fairbanks:     Greek  Religion,  p.  310. 


26  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

we  next  turn  our  attention  to  the  objects  sought  in  the  training  that 
was  now  afforded. 

The  ideals  of  he  Homeric  Age  pointed  to  the  successful  warrior, 
the  orator,  and  the  man  who  could  accomplish  his  ends  by  craft.  In 
the  early  lyric  period  there  are  additions  to  this  list.  In  the  Theogony 
we  are  told  that  the  muses  make  the  man  whom  they  honor  a  per- 
suasive speaker.  He  becomes  a  just  judge  and  by  his  counsels  he 
makes  strife  cease.^  Is  not  this  perhaps  the  ideal  of  the  composer 
of  the  Theogony?  Later  he  mentions  those  whom  Hecate  aids.  They 
are  the  orator,  the  warrior,  the  judge,  the  athlete,  the  sailor,  and  the 
herdsman.^  The  last  two  are  the  business  men  of  Boeotia,  if  we  may , 
so  call  them.  If  a  man  of  Miletus  of  that  age  had  given  us  his  ideals, 
we  should  probably  find  among  them  the  successful  merchant,  the 
ship-owner,  the  man  of  wealth.  A  more  developed  civilization  was 
giving  rise  to  new  ideals. 

The  question  naturally  rises  as  to  whether  there  were  any  schools 
during  this  period.  Our  answer  would  be  that  there  were  none  at 
first.  As  we  have  no  evidence  for  the  existence  of  schools  in  the 
Homeric  Age,  so  we  have  none  for  some  time  to  follow.  In  fact 
Hesiod,  as  he  describes  the  Silver  Age,  presents  the  ideal  of  a  long 
period  of  education,  but  where?  Not  in  a  school,  but  at  home,  at  the 
mother's  side. 

aW'  etcarov  ^ev  iral'^  erea  irapa  /xijTepL  KeBvj} 
eT/oei^er'  ardWcoVy  fieya  vrJ7no<;^  m  ivl  oc/co),^ 

"But  for'  a  hundred  years  the  child  growing  is  brought  up  at  his 
revered  mother's  side,  very  childish,  in  his  home."  As  the  home  was 
the  chief  source  of  education  at  the  time  the  Homeric  poems  were 
composed,  so  it  was  to  be  for  some  years  to  come.  In  the  Works  and 
Days  we  find  that  here  the  young  wife  is  taught  by  her  husband. 

irapOeviKTjP  8k  yafielv,  Xva  rjdea  Kehva  SiSd^rj'i,* 

"But  marry  a  maiden  that  you  may  teach  her  discreet  ways."  Of  the 
rise  of  schools  we  shall  speak  later. 

The  teachers  of  this  period  must  at  first  have  been  largely  the 
parents  and  attendants  in  the  home,  as  was  true  in  the  Homeric  Age. 
Aphrodite  in  the  fourth  Homeric  Hymn,  disguised  as  a  mortal  woman, 
gives  a  false  account  of  herself  and  states  that  her  Trojan  nurse  had 

'Lines  81-87. 

•Lines  430-447. 

"{forks  and  Days,  11.  130-131. 

«Line699 


Early  Lyric  Period  27 

taught  her  the  Trojan  language.^  On  the  other  hand,  Jason's  son, 
Medeus,  was  brought  up  by  Chiron  among  the  mountains  according 
to  the  Theogony.^  Until  the  establishment  of  schools  however  the 
father,  the  mother,  and  the  members  of  the  household  probably 
looked  out  for  the  education  and  training  of  the  child  under  ordinary 
circumstances. 

INTELLECTUAL  EDUCATION 

Let  us  next  consider  the  additional  subject  matter  for  study 
that  appears  after  the  close  of  the  Homeric  Age.  We  naturally 
begin  with  writing.  In  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  there  is  but  one  refer- 
ence and  that  a  doubtful  one  to  this  art.^ 

Our  earliest  example  of  Greek  writing  is  on  a  Dipylon  vase 
belonging  probably  to  the  eighth  century.*  The  first  certain  reference 
we  have  to  it  in  literature  is  in  Archilochus,  who  lived  early  in  the 
seventh  century.^  The  Spartans  used  the  a-Kindkrj^  a  staff  about 
which  a  piece  of  writing-material  was  rolled.  This  was  written  upon 
and  then  sent  to  an  officer  in  the  field,  who  had  a  staff  of  the  same 
thickness.  Upon  winding  the  parchment  or  papyrus  on  this,  he 
would  find  the  message  in  the  form  in  which  it  was  written,  but  for 
one  not  possessing  the  proper  staff  the  writing  was  unintelligible. 
From  tliis  the  term,  aKurdXr)^  came  to  have  the  meaning,  "mes- 
sage." Pindar  in  his  sixth  Olympian  Ode,  line  154,  speaks  of  an 
ode  of  his  as  a  o-KvrdXa  Mocadv.  The  scholiast  commenting  on  this 
passage  quotes  the  following  from  Archilochus: 
'E/aeo)  Tiv'  vfilv  alvov^  a)  K.r]pvKi8i]^ 
ayvvfiein}  crKxrrdkr}.* 

"I  shall  tell  you  a  tale,  0  Cerycides,  being  a  messenger  filled  with 
grief."    This  would  certainly  imply  the  use  of  writing. 

\^Tiether  or  not  this  art  came  into  general  use  till  late  in  the 
seventh  century  is  a  question,  but  it  seems  to  have  been  used  for  prac- 
tical purposes  long  before.^  As  people  employed  it  more  and  more, 
it  may  have  been  a  demand  for  the  teaching  of  reading  and  writing 
that  led  with  other  causes  to  the  rise  of  schools.* 


'Lines  113-116. 

-'Lines  1000-1002. 

^Iliad,  VI,  11.  168-170.     See  also  Browne:     Handbook  of  Homeric  Study,  p.  216. 

*P.  Giles  ia  article  on  Alphabet  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica. 

""Mahaily:    History  of  Classical  Greek  Literature,  I,  pp.  156-157. 

"Fragments.  No.  96. 

'Davidson :    Education  of  the  Greek  People,  p.  62. 

■"For  discussion  of  early  Greek  writing  see  P.  Giles  in  article  on  Alphabet  in  Encyclopaedia  Britan- 
nica and  Mure:  Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  UI,  pp. 
440-490. 


28  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

In  arithmetic  an  advance  was  made,  as  is  shown  by  the  early 
introduction  of  a  system  of  weights  and  measures,  which  could 
hardly  have  been  in  general  use  without  involving  arithmetical  opera- 
tions much  in  advance  of  those  required  with  the  simple  weights  and 
measures  employed  in  the  Homeric  Age.  According  to  Herodotus, 
Phidon,  king  of  Argos,  was  the  first  to  introduce  such  a  system  into 
the  Peloponnesus.^  His  date  is  very  uncertain,  being  put  by  some  as 
early  as  the  eighth  century  and  by  others  as  late  as  the  sixth.^  Meyer 
places  his  career  about  the  middle  of  the  seventh  century.^  It  is 
possible  that  the  Aeginetans  had  such  a  system  even  earlier.*  The 
coinage  of  money  apparently  originated  in  Lydia  about  700^  and 
soon  after  was  adopted  by  the  lonians  and  from  them  passed  to  the 
other  Greeks."  The  trade  and  business  that  were  developing,  espe- 
cially in  the  Ionian  cities,  doubtless  required  more  and  more  dif- 
ficult calculations  in  arithmetic,  which  would  tend  to  promote  the 
study  of  that  subject. 

In  astronomy  we  find  some  references  in  the  Works  and  Days 
to  phenomena  not  mentioned  in  Homer.  Sirius  is  repeatedly  re- 
ferred to.  Its  connection  with  the  hot  period  of  the  summer  is  noted.^ 
In  the  following  passage  mention  of  the  solstice,  "the  turning  of  the 
sun,"  and  the  rising  of  Arcturus  show  a  careful  study  of  the  heavens. 

EiVT^  av  h''  e^rjKoina  /xera  Tpo7ra<i  'qekCoio  kt\.^ 
"And  when  sixty  days  after  the  solstice  Zeus  brings  the  winter  to  an 
end,  then  indeed  the  star  Arcturus,  leaving  the  sacred  stream  of 
Oceanus,  first  appearing,  rises  in  the  evening."  With  Hesiod  the 
knowledge  of  the  position  of  the  stars  is  used  largely  to  determine 
the  time  for  beginning  certain  agricultural  tasks. 

There  was  a  poem  on  astronomy  or  astrology  belonging  to  the 
school  of  Hesiod  that  was  perhaps  once  attached  to  the  Works  and 
Days,  till  it  was  rejected  by  later  critics.  This  was  composed  some 
years  after  the  time  of  Hesiod.  It  gave  the  constellations,  the  dates 
of  their  rising,  setting,  etc.^ 

In  this  period  that  we  have  now  reached  the  Greeks'  knowl- 
edge of  geography  extended  far  beyond  what  it  was  in  the  Homeric 

'History,  VI.  127. 

'Busolt:    Griechiiche  Geschichte,  I,  pp.  6n-62,'5. 

"Meyer:    Geschichte  des  AUertums,  II,  p.  544. 

«Ib.,  p.  .MS. 

"Busolt:    Griechische  Geschichte,  I,  pp.  620-621.  i 

"Fot  discussion   uf  the   origin   of  coinage   and   bibliography   see   Holm :     History   of  Greece,   I,   pp. 

214-215. 
'Lines  587-588. 
"Lines  564-567. 
'Evelyn-White:     Hesiod,  the  Homeric  Hymns,  and  Homerica,      Introduction,  pp.  xix-xx. 


Early  Lyric  Period  29 

Age.  Then  little  was  known  beyond  the  shores  of  the  Aegean. 
They  now  became  more  familiar  with  this  region.  In  the  first  Ho- 
meric Hymn,  which  perhaps  belongs  to  the  eighth  century/  a  long 
list  of  places,  mostly  islands  in  this  locality,  is  given.^  We  have  also 
reached  the  time  of  colonization.^  About  the  middle  of  the  seventh 
century  Greek  cities  were  springing  up  on  the  Bosphorus  and  the 
Euxine.  Long  before  this  the  first  colonies  had  been  founded  in 
Italy  and  Sicily  and  before  the  end  of  the  period  that  we  are  study- 
ing Naucratis  was  to  appear  in  Egypt,  and  Gyrene  a  little  farther 
to  the  west.  The  world  of  the  Greeks  was  greatly  enlarged  and 
consequently  their  knowledge  of  the  lands  about  the  Mediterranean 
and  Euxine.  Hesiod  knew  of  the  black  men  of  the  south.*  Babylon 
is  not  mentioned  in  the  Homeric  poems,'^  but  at  about  the  date  that 
we  have  set  as  the  end  of  the  period  now  under  discussion,  610  B.  G., 
a  brother  of  Alcffius  served  as  mercenary  in  the  Babylonian  army.'' 
Golonists,  adventurers,  and  traders  would  bring  back  knowledge  of 
the  lands  with  which  they  were  familiar  and  add  to  the  general  store 
of  information  to  be  handed  down  to  the  rising  generation. 

There  is  now  to  be  observed  a  more  careful  study  of  nature. 
As  the  position  of  the  stars  was  used  by  Hesiod  to  indicate  the  time 
for  beginning  certain  work,  so  also  was  the  arrival  of  the  different 
birds.^  The  habits  of  the  snail  were  recorded  also  to  set  a  limit  to 
certain  labors  of  the  farmer.*  The  spider  was  observed.^  Bees  were 
watched  and  it  was  seen  that  the  drones  did  no  work.^°  The  polypus 
appears  in  Hesiod  as  the  "boneless"  creature.^^  It  is  also  mentioned 
along  with  the  seal  in  the  first  Homeric  Hymn}~  The  tortoise  plays  a 
prominent  part  in  the  beginning  of  the  third  Hymn}^  Turning  from 
zoology  to  botany,  we  find  in  the  fifth  Homeric  Hymn  a  list  of  flow- 
ers that  Persephone  was  gathering,  when  Pluto  came  to  seize  her 
and  carry  her  away  to  the  under  world.  This  list  includes  the  crocus, 
iris,  hyacinth,  rose,  lily,  and  narcissus.^*     It  is  rather  surprising  to 


'lb..  Introduction,  p.  xxxvii. 

'Lines  30-44. 

'For  discussion  of  Greek  colonization  see  Meyer:     Geschichte  des  Altertums,  U,  pp.  440-484. 

*Works  and  Days,  1.  527. 

'Browne:    Handbook  of  Homeric  Study,  p.  187. 

'Alcaeus,  Fragments,  Nos.  36,  37. 

''Works  and  Days,  11.  448-451. 

»Ib.,  11.  571-572. 

»Ib.,  1.  777. 

^ofheogony,  11.  594-599. 

"Works  and  Days,  1.  524. 

'-Line  77. 

•'Lines  24-54. 

"Linet  425-428. 


30  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

find  so  many  flowers  mentioned  in  one  short  passage  as  early  as  the 
seventh  century,  when  this  hymn  was  probably  composed.^ 

The  origin  of  the  moisture  in  the  air,  the  formation  of  clouds, 
and  rain  seem  to  have  been  understood,  as  is  shown  by  the  following 
passage  from  the  Works  and  Days: 

ocrre  apvcradfievo^  irora^Siv  diro  aevaovraJVy 
injrov  virep  ^ait)';  apdeh  avcfioio  dveWj), 
aXKore  fiev  d^vcL.' 

"Which  (the  moisture)  drawn  from  the  overflowing  rivers,  raised 
aloft  by  the  blast  of  the  wind,  sometimes  comes  down  as  rain." 

The  Greek  of  this  age,  observing  nature  carefully,  was  begin- 
ning to  use  his  reasoning  faculties  with  respect  to  the  phenomena  that 
he  witnessed.  It  was  only  a  beginning,  but  a  beginning  destined  to 
lead  to  the  scientific  studies  of  the  early  physicists,  who  were  to 
appear  in  the  sixth  century. 

History  in  this  period  as  well  as  in  the  Homeric  Age  took  the 
form  of  genealogies.  Poems  were  composed  tracing  the  lineage  of 
heroes  back  to  the  gods.  Such  were  the  Catalogue  and  the  Eoiae, 
which  were  assigned  to  Hesiod,  but  were  probably  by  other  and  later 
poets  of  the  Boeotian  school.^  Some  of  the  epic  poets  contemporary 
with  Hesiod  or  a  little  later  composed  genealogies,  Cinaethon  of  Lace- 
daemon,  Asius  of  Samos,  and  Chersias  of  Orchomenus.^ 

The  mention  of  these  poets  suggests  the  whole  field  of  litera- 
ture belonging  to  this  period.  It  is  astonishingly  large.  In  the 
first  place  there  were  the  Cyclic  poets.  Beginning  with  the  strife 
of  the  gods  and  the  giants,  they  next  took  up  the  group  of  myths 
associated  with  Thebes,  then  told  the  story  of  the  Trojan  War  and 
tlie  wanderings  of  the  heroes,  omitting  the  parts  covered  by  the  Iliad 
and  Odyssey.  Now  the  stories  told  in  these  poems  must  have  been 
well  known  throughout  Greece,  for  many  of  the  poems  were  mani- 
festly composed  to  supplement  others  or  to  fill  gaps,  which  impliies 
knowledge  of  the  older  ones  and  furthermore  the  reputed  authors 
lived  in  places  as  widely  separated  as  Miletus,  Lacedaemon,  and 
Cyprus.^ 

We  should  add  to  these  works  other  forms  of  poetry,  in  the  first 
place  the  poems  of  the  Boeotian  school, — the  Works  and  Days,  the 

'Evelyn-White:     Hesiod,  the  Homeric  Hymns,  and  Homerica,  Introduction,  p.  xxxvi. 

"Lines  550-552. 

'Evelyn-White:     Hesiod,  the  Homeric  Hymns,  and  Homerica,  Introduction,  p.  xxvi. 

'Mure:     Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  II,  pp.  447-443. 

'lb.,  U,  p.  250. 


Early  Lyric  Period  31 

Theogony,  the  Shield  of  Heracles,  the  Catalogue,  the  Eoiae,  the 
Maxims  of  Chiron,  the  Melam podia,  the  Idaean  Dactyls,  the  Aegimius, 
the  Nuptials  of  Ceyx,  Elegy  on  the  Death  of  Batrachus,  Descent  of 
Theseus  to  Hades,  the  Epithalamium  of  Peleus  and  Thetis,  the  As- 
tronomy, and  the  Ornithomantia.^  Next  we  should  notice  the  lyric 
writers,  Calinus,  Archilochus,  Semonides  of  Amorgus,  Mimnermus, 
Terpander,  Alcman,  and  Tyrtaeus,  and  then  by  no  means  is  our  list 
complete  of  the  writers  of  this  age  who  are  mentioned  in  ancient 
literature.^  When  we  take  into  consideration  the  fact  that  besides 
all  the  authors  referred  to  there  must  have  been  many  a  poet  unknown 
to  fame,  we  may  well  regard  this  period  as  a  literary  age.  The 
bards  recited  or  sung  these  poems,  or  choruses  of  the  people  chanted 
them.  In  whatever  way  men  became  familiar  with  them,  they  found 
in  them  a  means  of  culture  and  education. 

But  above  all  this  the  Homeric  poetry  was  a  heritage  from  the 
past,  which,  being  learned  and  recited  and  quoted,  profoundly 
influenced  all  subsequent  education.  F.  Davidson  says  that  in  his- 
toric times  in  Greece  there  emerges  a  people  with  a  book,  that  there 
is  now  through  its  influence  besides  the  real  an  ideal  world. ^  And 
Henry  Browne,  speaking  of  a  later  period  says:  "Homer  was  taught 
in  school  as  the  one  great  authority  on  all  that  regarded  Greek 
religion,  history,  and  patriotism,  not  to  say  as  the  chief  source  of 
knowledge  on  most  other  subjects."*  Some  such  authority  the  Ho- 
meric poems  must  have  had,  even  before  there  were  schools.  The 
poetry  of  the  age  plainly  shows  that  its  authors  knew  their  Homer. 
They  imitate,  they  borrow  epithets,  and  even  parts  of  lines.° 

The  following  from  Croiset's  Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque 
is  to  the  point:  "U epopee  avail  fait  pendant  plusieurs  siecles  l' edu- 
cation intime  des  esprits:  elle  avail  rempli  les  imaginations  de  belles 
el  grandes  images,  elle  avail  mis  en  circulation  une  quantite  presque 
infinie  de  sentiments  et  d'idees,  elle  avail  cree  un  langage  delicat  et 
superbe."^ 

There  had  been  considerable  advance  in  music  since  the  Homeric 
Age.  In  the  first  place  the  instruments  were  improved.  The  flute, 
which  is  rarely  mentioned  in  the  Homeric  poems,^  now  comes  into 


Hb.,  n,  pp.  383-445. 

»Ib..  in,  p.  471. 

^Education  of  the  Creek  People,  p.  57. 

*Handbook  of  Homeric  Study,   p.  30. 

"Wright :    Short  History  of  Greek  Literature,  pp.  62,  64. 

"Vol.  I,  p.  568. 

'Seymore:    Life  in  the  Homeric  Age,  p.  143. 


32  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

common  use.  It  was  employed  to  accompany  some  forms  of  lyric 
poetry  as  well  as  for  independent  performances.'^  The  lyre,  we  are 
told,  was  improved  by  Terpander  by  the  addition  of  three  more 
strings  to  the  original  four,^  and  we  have  the  following  that  is  sup- 
posed to  be  a  fragment  from  his  poetry: 

2oi  h^riixel<i  rerpdyrjpw  a7roaT€p^ajrre<i  aothhv 
etrrarova)  (fyopfii'yyL  veois  KeXaSija-ofjLcv  vfivois.' 
"But  loving  tio  more  the  four-toned  music,  we  shall  sing  for  you  new 
songs  to  the  accompaniment  of  the  seven-toned  lyre." 

The  whole  matter  of  Terpander's  improving  the  lyre  has  been 
made  doubtful  by  the  discovery  in  Crete,  as  has  been  mentioned 
before,  of  the  picture  of  a  lyre  with  seven  strings  on  a  sarcophagus 
belonging  to  the  Aegean  period.  It  is  however  possible  that  a  sim- 
pler form  of  lyre  was  used  during  the  Greek  middle  ages  and  that 
Terpander  rediscovered  the  octave  and  the  advantage  of  having  seven 
strings,  or  he  may  have  introduced  this  new  form  from  the  East.^ 

Skill  in  playing  on  the  harp  was  furthered  by  competition  in 
contests  at  Delphi,  held  every  eight  years  till  590,  when  it  was  com- 
bined with  the  Pythian  games,  which,  beginning  then,  were  held 
every  four  years.  From  that  time  on  a  contest  of  flute-players  was 
always  the  most  important  event.^ 

With  the  development  of  lyric  poetry  singing  was  coming  to  be 
held  in  higher  esteem  among  the  people.  Edward  D.  Perry  in  his 
lecture  included  in  the  series  published  by  Columbia  University 
under  the  title,  Greek  Literature,  says:  "There  was  hardly  an  occa- 
sion in  the  life  of  Greece  v,?hich  did  not  find  its  accompaniment  of 
song."®  Mure  states  that  there  were  fifty  varieties  of  lyric  poetry.'' 
These  may  not  all  have  come  into  existence  at  so  early  a  period  as 
that  which  we  are  discussing,  but  they  must  have  existed  in  germ 
among  the  people  before  they  received  a  literary  form  at  the  hands 
of  distinguished  poets.  The  bard  of  Homeric  times  was  still  heard. 
In  the  Theogony  we  find  these  words : 

el  yap  Tt?  Kal  TrevOo'i  e^cov  veoKrjBcL  0Vfia>  /ctX." 

"For  if  some  one  also  having  woe  in  that  heart  of  his,  which  is  filled 


'Beloch:     Griechische  Geschichte,  I,  p.  411. 

"Strubo:     Geography,  XIII,  p.  618. 

"FraymentB,  No.  4. 

*Mure:    Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  III,  pp.  40-41. 

"Holm:     History  of  Greece,  I,  pp.  241. 

"Page  59. 

^A  Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  III,  p.  64. 

<>Lmei  98-103. 


Early  Lyric  Period  33 

with  fresh  sorrow,  is  distressed,  being  grieved  at  heart,  and  then  a 
bard,  a  servant  of  the  muses,  sings  the  renowned  deeds  of  former 
men  and  the  blessed  gods,  who  hold  Olympus,  soon  he  forgets  his 
sorrow,  nor  does  he  remember  at  all  his  cares,  but  quickly  the  gifts 
of  the  goddesses  have  diverted  his  thoughts." 

Then  too  there  were  the  short  lyric  songs  intended  for  one  voice, 
that  were  soon  to  reach  perfection  in  the  work  of  Alcaeus  and  Sappho. 
Every  accomplished  man  was  expected  to  be  able  to  sing  or  recite 
poetry,  when  the  occasion  demanded.^  Philochorus  states  that  the 
Spartans  had  the  custom  that  each  man  should  sing  a  poem  of 
Tyrtacus  at  meals,  when  they  were  in  the  field.^  There  were  besides 
choruses  in  which  a  number  took  part.  At  Sparta  all  the  citizens 
had  to  participate  in  the  choruses  at  public  festivals.^  Training  was 
required  for  this  service  and  this  became  more  exacting,  as  the  choral 
odes  became  more  complicated.  Here  we  can  see  direct  instruction 
in  music,  an  important  element  in  education,  and  from  this  the  young 
women  were  not  excluded,  for  there  were  the  parthenia,  lyric  odes 
composed  especially  to  be  sung  by  choruses  of  women.^ 

In  architecture^  and  art*^  this  period  was  one  of  preparation. 
Shortly  after  600  the  development  was  to  be  very  rapid.  Before 
that  date  we  may  see  only  the  beginnings.  The  progress  of  archi- 
tecture was  marked  by  the  replacing  of  the  Homeric  rampart  with 
stone  walls,"  by  the  erection  of  the  first  treasure-house  at  Delphi  by 
Cypselus,  tyrant  of  Corinth,^  and  by  the  development  of  temple 
building,  with  the  Heraeum  at  Olympia  as  an  early  example,  con- 
structed of  sun-dried  brick  and  with  wooden  columns  and  archi- 
trave.^ Just  as  the  period  was  closing,  the  construction  of  two  large 
temples  was  begun,  one  the  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus  and  the 
other  that  of  Hera  at  Samos.^°  This  activity  shows  the  artistic,  re- 
ligious, and  industrial  development  of  the  people  and  indicates  an 
advance  in  their  education. 

As  for  sculpture  in  the  round,  which  is  barely  mentioned  in  the 


'Grote:     History  of  Greece,  IV,  p.  94. 

''Athenaeus,  p.  630. 

»Grote:     History  of  Greece,  IV,  84-85. 

*Jevon8:     History  of  Greek  Literature,  p.  128. 

'For  the  early  Greek  temple  see  Fowler  and  Wheeler:     Greek  Archaeology,  pp.  133-140. 

*For  art   in   this   period   see  Gardner:     Handbook   of   Greek  Sculpture,   pp.   77-93,   and    Collignon' 

Historie  de  la  Sculpture  Grecque,  I,  pp.  101-126. 
'Meyer:     Geschichte  des  Altertums,  II,  p.  600. 
'^Duncker:     History  of  Greece,  II,  p.  344. 
•Fowler  and  Wheeler :     Greek  Archaeology,  p.   110. 
^"Tiraayenis :     History  of  Greece,  I,  p.  113. 


34  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

Homeric  poems,^  progress  was  being  made.  The  xoana,^  which  had 
doubtless  long  served  as  temple  statues,  were  now  imitated  in  stone,^ 
and  even  marble  statues  were  being  made  for  votive  offerings.  Such 
a  statue  we  have  in  the  rude  figure  dedicated  to  Artemis  by  Nicandra 
of  Naxos,  one  of  the  earliest  works  of  Greek  art  that  have  come 
down  to  us.* 

In  reliefs  some  bronzes  from  Olympia  show  mythological  scenes. 
One  has  also  figures  borrowed  from  eastern  art,  as  the  griffin,  indi- 
cating influence  from  the  older  civilizations  on  Greece.  These  bronzes 
belong  probably  to  the  early  years  of  the  sixth  century.^  Some  of 
the  Spartan  grave  reliefs  may  be  a  little  older,**  but  the  art  that 
made  both  bronzes  and  grave  reliefs  possible  must  have  developed 
before  610  B.  C. 

Skill  was  displayed  very  early  in  metal  working.  In  Crete  the 
technique  in  metals  in  the  eighth  century  surpassed  that  of  the  main- 
land of  Greece,^  and  Samos  early  in  the  sixth  century  was  famous 
for  its  bronze.*  The  poets  of  the  period  were  familiar  with  various 
works  in  metal.  In  the  Theogony  we  have  a  description  of  the  crown 
of  Pandora. 

a/x^t  he  01  aT€(f>dvr)v  ')(^pv(Tir]v  K€<fia\7]<ptv  eOrj/ce^  ktK," 

"And  he  placed  upon  her  head  a  golden  crown,  which  the  renowned 
Hephaestus  himself  made,  fashioning  it  with  his  hands,  pleasing 
father  Zeus.  And  on  it  he  had  formed  many  richly  wrought  figures, 
a  wonder  to  behold,  monsters  which  the  land  and  the  sea  produce 
in  great  numbers.  Many  of  these  he  placed  upon  the  crown,  and  a 
great  glory  flashed  from  it,  marvelous,  like  living  creatures  that 
utter  cries." 

The  shield  of  Heracles,  described  in  a  poem  of  that  name  by  a 
writer  of  the  Boeotian  school,  is  the  most  elaborate  work  of  art  that 
appears  in  the  literature  of  the  period.^"  The  description  is  an  imi- 
tation of  the  shield  of  Achilles  in  the  eighteenth  book  of  the  Iliad, 
differing  from  the  latter  largely  in  the  introduction  of  mythological 
scenes,  favorite  subjects  in  early  reliefs  and  especially  to  be  noted 

»//Mrf,  VI,  1.  303. 

^Gardner:     Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  pp.  85-88. 

"Meyer:     Geschichte  des  Altertums,  II,  p.  605. 

^Gardner:     Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  p.  126. 

•lb.,  pp.  68-69. 

•lb.,  pp.  148151. 

^Evans  in  article  in  Encyclopaedia  Britannica  on  Crete. 

'Gardner:     Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  pp.  lOS-106. 

■Lines  578-584. 

"Line*  139-320. 


Early  Lyric  Period  35 

on  the  Chest  of  Cypselus,  which  was  dedicated  at  Olympia  about  the 
beginning  of  the  sixth  century.^ 

The  engraving  of  gems^  and  the  making  of  pottery^  continued 
from  the  Minoan  period  with  various  changes.  In  vases  two  differ- 
ent styles  are  noted,  the  "Geometric" — rude  but  original,  and  the 
"orientalizing,"  showing  eastern  influence,  but  with  a  final  tendency 
to  represent  in  its  own  way  scenes  from  Greek  life  and  myths.* 

The  brief  review  that  we  have  made  of  the  art  of  the  period 
shows  along  what  lines  artists  were  studying  and  gaining  their  tech- 
nique, and  the  forms  of  art  that  the  general  public  had  before  their 
eyes  to  develop  their  artistic  taste.  So  the  description  is  not  out 
of  place  in  a  discussion  of  the  field  of  education. 

Industrial  education  is  implied  by  the  wonderful  development 
in  industry  that  was  taking  place  in  the  seventh  century.  In  the 
Works  and  Days,  besides  agriculture,  the  following  forms  of  labor 
are  mentioned  or  implied — the  work  of  a  potter,  a  carpenter,  a  beg- 
gar, a  bard  (lines  25-26),  weaving  (64),  the  making  of  implements 
at  home  (420-436),  the  work  of  a  blacksmith  (493),  the  work  of  a 
wood-cutter  (807),  and  ship-building  (808).  This  does  not  show  a 
more  highly  developed  state  of  industry  than  that  depicted  in  the 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  except  that  iron  is  mentioned  much  more  fre- 
quently, but  the  Works  and  Days  was  composed  on  the  mainland  of 
Greece.  Doubtless  in  the  maritime  cities  of  Asia  Minor  a  more  rapid 
progress  was  being  made.  Navigation,  commerce,  and  manufacturing 
were  all  developing  at  the  same  time.  K.  J.  Beloch  in  his  Griechische 
Geschichte  gives  an  excellent  account  of  this  industrial  development.^ 
The  following  is  a  brief  summary.  At  the  beginning  of  the  seventh 
century  Greece  was  still  essentially  an  agricultural  country.  The 
products  of  the  East  were  still  used  and  a  great  deal  of  the  carrying 
trade  was  in  the  hands  of  the  Phoenicians.  Metal  industries  grad- 
ually developed  in  Ionia,  Chalcis,  and  Corinth.  The  manufacture 
of  textiles  arose  in  Megara,  Miletus,  and  other  places,  of  ceramics 
in  Corinth  and  Athens.  Industrial  development  was  such  that  in  the 
course  of  the  seventh  century  the  manufactured  products  of  Greece 
came  to  surpass  those  of  the  Orient,  except  for  a  few  special  articles, 
such  as  glass-ware,  ointment,  rugs,  and   linen.     Skilled  workmen 


•Gardner:     Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture,  pp.  78-83. 

'For  gem-engraving  during  thig  period  see  Walters:     Art  of  the  Greeks,  pp.   207-208. 

^For   the   pottery   of   this   period   see  ib.,   pp.   169-172,   and   the   same   author's  History   of  Ancient 

Pottery,  I,  pp.  277-353. 
*TarbeIl :    History  of  Greek  Art,  pp.  73-76. 
<>Vol.  I,  pp.  264-308. 


36  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

taught  their  sons  the  trade,  so  skill  appeared  in  certain  families,  but 
as  the  development  was  rapid,  others  were  called  in.  These  also 
taught  their  sons.  The  work  of  slaves  was  used.  Many  slaves  could 
carry  on  the  industry  more  economically  than  a  few.  Consequently 
big  establishments  grew  up.  Greek  ships  went  to  Egypt,  Phoenician 
ports,  and  the  Pillars  of  Hercules.  A  means  was  soon  devised  for 
dragging  the  small  ships  in  use  across  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  Inter- 
nal trade  was  also  carried  on.  Piracy  was  common  and  small  islands 
suffered  from  it.  The  culture  of  the  olive  was  becoming  more  and 
more  important.  Fisheries  were  common.  The  ordinary  worker  on 
the  soil  had  a  hard  life.    Great  land-owners  reaped  the  profits. 

Beloch's  description  shows  that  industries  were  becoming  spe- 
cialized. No  longer  did  the  citizen  by  his  own  skill  supply  himself 
with  everything  that  he  needed.  Expert  workers  were  required  and 
these  had  to  have  special  training.  So  industrial  education  advanced 
during  this  period. 

In  the  preceding  pages  we  have  tried  to  show  what  constituted 
the  subject  matter  of  study  from  the  intellectual  point  of  view  dur- 
ing the  early  lyric  period.  We  have  next  to  discuss  the  physical 
education  of  the  people  of  this  age  in  their  amusements,  their  sports, 
and  their  training  for  war. 

PHYSICAL  EDUCATION 

The  physical  education  of  this  period  was  largely  a  counterpart 
of  what  it  had  been  in  the  Homeric  Age.  We  shall  however  note  some 
changes. 

As  dancing  was  a  form  of  amusement  in  the  earlier  period,^  so 
it  appears  now.  It  is  associated  especially  with  singing  as  in  the 
choral  dance  described  in  the  Shield  of  Heracles. 

Toiye  fiev  av  iraC^omei  utt'  opxn^y'^  '^'^^  aoi^y.'^ 

"Some  moreover  sporting  in  the  dance  and  song."  The  rhythmic 
movements  accompanying  the  choral  lyrics  became  more  complicated 
along  with  the  music  and  the  structure  of  the  ode.  Consequently 
the  dancing  as  well  as  the  singing  required  careful  training  on  the 
part  of  the  participants. 

In  athletic  sports  the  same  contests  were  in  vogue  as  during 
the  Homeric  Age,  but  we  find  also  that  the  pentathlon  was  intro- 

niiad,  XVIII,  11.  590-60«. 
'Line  282. 


Early  Lyric  Period  37 

duced  into  the  Olympic  games  about  700  B.  C.^  This  was  a  com- 
bination of  five  events,  running,  jumping,  hurling  the  discus  and 
javelin,  and  wrestling.^  The  only  new  thing  here  is  the  combina- 
tion, for  all  of  these  events  are  mentioned  in  the  Homeric  poems.  A 
great  incentive  for  athletic  training  however  had  been  added  in  the 
establishment  of  the  Olympic  games.  These  probably  date  back  to 
the  preceding  period,  but  only  as  a  local  contest.^  In  the  seventh 
century  these  games  had  become  a  national  contest,  for  then  Greeks 
from  Asia  Minor,  Sicily,  southern  Italy,  and  Thessaly  participated.* 
So  the  whole  Greek  world  felt  the  stimulus  to  athletic  training  that 
hopes  of  a  victory  at  Olympia  would  give.  Contests  for  boys  were 
added,^  so  that  an  incentive  was  given  to  begin  one's  training  early. 
Nor  was  Olympia  the  only  place  where  such  games  were  held.  At 
the  Ionic  festival  at  Delos  athletic  contests  were  introduced.  The 
composer  of  the  first  Homeric  Hymn  mentions  these,  although  he 
was  more  interested  in  the  poetical  contest. 

ol  8e  ere  Trir/fjba'y^iTj  re  Kal  op'^rjOfiai  kuI  aotSrj 
fiVTjcrdfievoi  Tepirovaiv.^ 

"And  they  (the  lonians  who  have  gathered)  take  pleasure  in  recall- 
ing thee  with  boxing  and  dance  and  song." 

It  was  probably  only  as  this  festival  at  Delos  declined  that  the 
Olympic  games  became  important  throughout  Greece.^  Doubtless 
there  were  local  games  at  various  places.  The  other  national  games, 
the  Pythian,  Isthmian,  and  Nemean,  were  not  founded  till  the  sixth 
century.*  The  educational  influence  of  these  festivals  and  games, 
aside  from  the  physical  training  which  they  stimulated,  should  be 
mentioned.  Large  numbers  of  people  from  all  parts  of  the  Greek 
world,  touching  shoulder  to  shoulder,  obtained  a  broader  outlook 
on  life.  They  developed  a  feeling  for  the  unity  of  the  race,  while  at 
the  same  time  in  the  rivalry  of  the  contests  they  lost  nothing  of  their 
local  patriotism. 

In  hunting  probably  little  change  had  taken  place  since  Homeric 
times,  except  that  there  had  been  an  improvement  in  the  weapons, 
as  the  use  of  iron  became  much  more  extended.  But  in  war  the  old 
style  of  fighting,  depicted  in  the  Iliad,  had  passed  away.    The  chariot 

^Holm:    History  of  Greece,  I,  p.  237. 

'Gardiner:     Greek  Athletic  Sports  and  Festivals,  pp.  359-371. 

*Meyer:     Geschichte  des  Altertums,  H,  p.  373. 

Mb.,  p.  540. 

^Gardiner:     Greek  Athletic  Sports  and  Festivals,  p.  80. 

"Lines   149-150. 

'Cox:     General  History  of  Greece,  pp.  47-48. 

^Uolm :    History  of  Greece,  I,  p.  242. 


38  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

had  disappeared  in  battles.  No  longer  did  the  noble  approach  the 
enemy  to  engage  in  single  combat  with  an  opposing  chief,  but  the 
lines  of  citizen  soldiers  advanced  in  close  ranks,  each  heavily  armed 
in  full  panoply.  Light-armed  soldiers  were  employed  for  skirmish- 
ing. Cavalry  were  little  used  except  in  northern  Greece  till  much 
later.^  This  manner  of  fighting  required  the  training  of  the  whole 
body  of  citizens  and  not  of  the  nobles  alone,  so  physical  education 
was  doubtless  extended  to  a  far  larger  number  than  in  the  earlier 
period.  Again  men  had  to  be  trained  to  act  together  and  thus  the 
social  element  entered  in. 

Sparta  was  the  state  that  carried  this  method  of  fighting  to  its 
perfection.  Just  when  its  famous  system  of  training  was  adopted,  we 
cannot  say,  but  by  the  end  of  the  seventh  century  at  least.  Spartan 
discipline  must  have  been  developing.  There  is  no  need  to  describe 
it  here.^  Every  school  boy  has  learned  of  the  rigorous  training,  the 
hardships,  and  suffering  to  which  the  Spartan  boy  was  subjected 
from  the  age  of  seven  to  make  him  an  able  fighter.  We  should  note 
tliat  this  physical  training  was  thoroughly  organized.  Officers  of 
the  state  had  general  charge  and  under  them  young  men  between 
the  ages  of  twenty  and  thirty  had  the  direct  control  and  teaching 
of  the  boys.^  Here  was  a  school  organized  on  the  model  of  an  army 
with  a  definite  object  to  attain — the  development  of  the  efficient  sol- 
dier and  patriotic  citizen.  Nor  was  the  training  wholly  physical,  for 
music  had  its  place  in  the  instruction  of  the  youth  and  eventually 
perhaps,  reading  and  writing.*  The  Spartan  system  was  an  interest- 
ing experiment  in  education.  It  developed  the  best  soldiers  in  Greece, 
but  otherwise  it  was  not  a  success,  for  Sparta  failed  again  and  again 
to  make  proper  use  of  the  advantages  that  her  army  had  gained, 
because  she  did  not  have  leaders  with  the  intellectual  training  neces- 
sary to  make  them  wise  statesmen. 


'Gardner  and  Jevons:     Manual  of  Creek  Antiquities,  pp.  630-645. 

"See  Plutarch's  Lije  oj  Lycurgus. 

"Abbott:     History  of  Greece,  I,  pp.  211-212. 

*lb.,  p.  212. 


Early  Lyric  Period  39 

MORAL  EDUCATION 
As  we  turn  to  a  consideration  of  the  ideas  of  religion  that  were 
taught  to  the  rising  generation  in  this  period,  we  note  at  once  that 
there  is  more  of  regularity,  of  organization,  and  of  form  than  in  the 
Homeric  Age.  The  stories  of  the  gods  and  of  their  origin  had  been 
reduced  to  a  system  in  the  Theogony.  The  erection  of  temples  was 
now  also  common.  The  first  Homeric  Hymn,  the  earliest  in  the  col- 
lection, going  back  possibly  to  the  eighth  century,^  speaks  of  a  tem- 
ple as  though  these  buildings  were  not  at  all  unusual. 

.  .  .  .  o  S'  dWrjv  'yalav  a<f>i^eTat^  i]  K€V  ahrj  ol^ 
Tev^aadaL  V7]6v  re  koI  aXaea  SevSp-^evra.^ 

"And  he  (Apollo)  will  come  to  another  land,  which  will  please  him, 
to  prepare  his  temple  and  wooded  groves."  We  have  already  no- 
ticed that  by  the  end  of  the  period  large  and  magnificent  temples 
were  being  built.  Worship  had  also  become  more  elaborate,  as  is 
indicated  by  the  long  choral  odes  sung  in  honor  of  the  gods. 

Another  change  in  religion  that  had  taken  place  is  seen  in  the 
greatly  increased  importance  of  the  oracle  at  Delphi.^  We  have 
already  mentioned  the  games  and  festivals,  to  which  people  thronged. 
Other  popular  movements  in  religion  are  found  in  the  introduction 
of  the  worship  of  Dionysus,  orgiastic  in  character,*  and  also  the 
worship  of  Demeter  at  Eleusis,  at  first  perhaps  merely  a  fertility 
ritual,  but  developing  into  the  Eleusinian  mysteries.^  The  participa- 
tion of  the  people  in  the  different  forms  of  worship  left  its  impres- 
sion on  their  lives  and  was  an  important  part  of  their  education. 

The  question  arises  whether  the  teachings  of  religion  included 
the  inculcation  of  moral  ideas  more  than  it  had  done  in  the  Homeric 
Age.^  Progress  is  not  great  at  first,  but  Hesiod  in  the  Works  and 
Days  asserts  again  and  again  that  the  gods  punish  injustice,  as  in 
the  following  passage: 

addvarot  <f>pd^ovTaL  ocroi  tTKoXirjo'L  hiK-rjciv 
dXKr)\ov<i  rpC^ovai  detav  otriv  ovk  d\eyovT€^.^ 

"The  immortals  consider  those  men  who  by  crooked  decisions  waste 
each  other,  not  heeding  die  punishment  of  the  gods."     Mahaffy  in 

'Sikes  and  Allen:     Homeric  Hymns,  pp.  65-66. 

'Lines  75-76. 

'Meyer:    Geschichte  des  Altertums,  II,  p.  594. 

^Fairbanks:     Handbook  of  Gmck  Religion,  pp.  240-244. 

"Sikes  and  Allen:     Homeric   Hymns,  pp.   9-10. 

"For  discussion  of  the  relation   of  morality  to  Greek  religion   see  Fairbanks:     Handbook   of  Greek 

Religion,   pp.   306-312. 
^Lines  250-251. 


40  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

his  Greek  Literature  goes  so  far  as  to  say :  "The  high  and  noble  view 
of  the  unity  and  justice  of  the  Supreme  Governor  of  the  world — to 
the  complete  exclusion  of  lesser  deities — is  the  most  striking  feature 
of  the  poem  (Works  and  Days)  and  its  most  curious  contrast  to  the 
Theogony,"^  and  again,  "His  Zeus  is  an  all-wise  and  all-knowing 
Ruler,  far  removed  from  the  foibles  and  passions  of  the  Homeric 
type."2 

The  Theogony,  although  later,  connects  morality  with  the  gods 
less  than  does  the  Works  and  Days.^  Still  in  the  Theogony  we  find 
the  following: 

air'  av8pa>v  re  decav  re  Trapai^acrCa'i  ei^errrovaaL  kt\* 

"These  goddesses  (the  Fates)  following  up  the  transgressions  of  both 
gods  and  men,  never  cease  from  their  terrible  anger  before  they 
bring  an  evil  punishment  upon  the  one  who  sins." 

Oracles  sometimes  had  a  moral  content.  Mahaffy  states  that 
these  were  the  only  other  form  of  moral  instruction  aside  from  the 
teachings  of  the  poets  during  the  seventh  and  sixth  centuries.® 
Tyrtaeus  quotes  such  an  oracle.  After  enjoining  respect  for  the 
kings  and  the  old  men  and  obedience  to  the  laws,  the  oracle  con- 
tinues, bidding  the  citizens 

fivdel(r0ai  8e  to,  KaXa  Kal  epSeiv  iravra  Bitcata 
fxrjBeri  ^ovXeveiv  ryhe  iroXei  {^Xa^epov).^ 
"To  speak  what  is  noble  and  to  do  all  things  that  are  just  and  not 
to  plan  any  thing  (injurious)  to  this  city."  Here  Apollo  requires 
noble  works  and  just  deeds  from  the  common  citizens  in  addition  to 
the  civic  duties  of  obedience  and  regard  for  the  city.  And  in  gen- 
eral Holm  in  his  History  of  Greece  says  that  whenever  oracles  related 
to  morals,  it  was  along  the  line  of  moderation  and  avoidance  of 
extremes.^ 

We  have  referred  to  Mahaffy's  statement  in  which  he  includes 
with  the  oracles  the  poets  also  as  moral  teachers  of  Greece.  The 
literature  of  the  period  is  full  of  maxims.  Especially  is  this  true 
of  the  Works  and  Days.  Hesiod,  addressing  himself  to  Perses,  gives 
one  maxim  after  another,  urging  him  to  devote  himself  to  work. 
Toward  the  close  of  the  poem  the  advice  he  gives  is  more  general 

•Vol.  I,  pp.  100-101. 

•■'lb.,  p.  107. 

"lb.,  p.  110. 

*LineB  220-222. 

'Social  Life  in  Greece,  p.  356. 

"Fragmentt,  No.  2,  11.  9-10. 

'Vol.  I,  p.  233. 


Early  Lyric  Period  41 

and  apparently  intended  for  a  wider  circle.  There  is  a  series  of 
these  maxims  beginning  with  line  695.  It  may  be  that  some  or  all 
of  these  are  interpolations.^  If  this  is  so,  it  shows  just  as  plainly, 
if  not  more  so,  the  tendency  of  the  poets  of  this  age  to  indulge  in 
these  pithy  sayings.  Many  of  these  maxims  of  the  Works  and  Days 
are  excellent,  as  for  instance: 

or  avTM  KUKoL  rev^et  avrjp  aWa>  xaKa  T€i^a)v 
17  Be  KUKT)  fiovXr]  tw  ^ovKevaaim  KaKUTTr}.^ 

"A  man  doing  evil  to  another  does  evil  to  himself  and  evil  counsel 
is  worst  for  the  one  who  gives  it."  The  spirit  of  this  poem  on  the 
whole  however  shows  worldly  wisdom  rather  than  a  high  morality.^ 
In  the  lyric  poets  we  have  exhortations  in  loftier  strain — in 
Calinus*  and  Tyrtaeus'  the  call  to  be  brave  and  to  fight  for  one's 
fatherland,  in  Archilochus^  encouragement  to  endure  misfortunes 
calmly;  and  even  in  Semonides,  the  cynic,  we  find  these  words: 

el  8'  ifiol  iriOouiTOy 
QVK  av  KUKMv  ip^/xcv  ouS'  eV  dXyeaiv 
KUKola^  e'xpv7€<i  dvfwv  alKi^oifieOa.^ 

"But  if  my  advice  should  be  taken,  we  should  not  love  evils,  nor 
should  we  be  tormented,  having  our  hearts  filled  with  bitter  grief." 

The  words  of  the  poets  were  doubtless  used  by  parents  for  the 
purpose  of  giving  moral  instruction,  and  for  the  younger  genera- 
tion the  home  was  the  chief  source  of  religious  as  well  as  moral 
teaching,  as  it  must  ever  be. 

We  have  now  seen  of  what  the  direct  instruction — intellectual, 
physical,  and  moral — consisted  during  this  period  from  776-610.  In 
some  ways  great  advance  had  been  made  over  the  Homeric  Age, 
in  others  we  can  note  but  little  progress.  On  the  whole  we  realize 
that  influences  are  at  work  that  will  bring  big  results  in  the  coming 
years.  If  there  is  a  lack  of  achievement  in  things  intellectual,  there 
is  at  least  great  promise. 

•Wright:    Short  History  of  Greek  Literature,  p.  59. 

=Lines  265-266. 

*Moore:    Religion*  Thought  of  the  Greek*,  p.  36. 

^Fragments,  No.  1. 

'Fragments,  Nos.  8,  9,  10. 

"Fragments,  No.  62. 

'Fragments,  No.  I,  11.  22-24. 


42  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

THE  FOUNDING  OF  SCHOOLS 

We  now  have  a  sufficient  background  of  facts  to  take  up  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  question  as  to  when  schools  were  first  established  in 
Greece.  Freeman  places  the  beginning  of  elementary  schools  in 
Athens  early  in  the  sixth  century/  while  Davidson  makes  the  gen- 
eral statement  that  schools  had  their  origin  probably  not  long  before 
600.^  We  are  inclined  from  the  evidence  given  below  to  set  the 
date  at  least  thirty  or  forty  years  before  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century. 

In  the  first  place,  Aeschines  in  his  oration  against  Timarchus 
dwells  on  the  provisions  of  the  laws  of  Draco  and  Solon  for  safe- 
guarding the  morals  of  the  pupils  in  the  schools.^  After  mention- 
ing at  first  both  men  he  refers  repeatedly  to  "the  lawgiver,"  leaving 
in  doubt  which  he  means,  but  even  if  he  refers  to  Solon  alone,  the 
way  in  which  the  schools  are  mentioned  would  imply  that  they  had 
long  been  in  existence,  when  the  laws  were  made.  They  seem  to 
have  been  numerous  and  certain  evils  had  grown  up  in  connection 
with  them  that  needed  correction.  The  date  of  Solon's  legislation 
is  the  first  decade  of  the  sixth  century. 

Again  Aelian  states  that  when  Mytilene  controlled  the  sea,  it 
punished  certain  allies  who  had  revolted,  by  forbidding  that  their 
youth  should  be  taught  letters  and  music*  This  seems  to  indicate 
that  education  was  general  in  that  region  at  the  time.  As  the  control 
of  the  seas  would  point  to  the  period  of  the  greatness  of  Mytilene, 
the  date  would  have  to  be  set  about  600. 

The  idea  of  individual  teaching  had  long  been  current.  The 
Iliad  represents  Achilles  as  taught  by  Phoenix'  and  instructed  in 
medicine  by  Chiron,®  who  was  also  the  teacher  of  Asclepius.^  Chiron 
is  said  in  the  Theogony  to  have  given  instruction  to  Jason's  son, 
Medeus.*  He  was  regarded  as  a  wise  teacher  to  whom  youths  could 
be  sent  to  learn.  It  seems  likely  that  in  the  rapid  development  of 
the  seventh  century,  when  people  were  feeling  more  and  more  their 
need  of  knowledge,  if  the  idea  of  a  teacher's  giving  instruction  to 
different  youths  was  in  the  mind  of  the  people,  it  would  not  be  long 
before  it  would  be  put  in  practice  in  the  form  of  a  school. 


*SchooU  of  Hellas,  p.  52. 

'Education  of  the  Greek  People,  p.  62. 

•Sections  7-12. 

*Varia  HUtoria,  VU,  Section  IS 

VUad,  IX,  1.  438. 

"lb.,  XI,  I.  832. 

'lb.,  IV,  I.  219. 

BLinea  1000-1002. 


Early  Lyric  Period  43 

An  actual  example  of  boys  being  taught  together  was  found  in 
the  Spartan  state.  To  be  sure  the  instruction  was  largely  physical, 
but  even  in  early  times  there  may  have  been  instruction  along  other 
lines.  Plutarch  in  his  life  of  Lycurgus,  describing  the  discipline  of 
the  Spartans,  writes: 

ypd/jL/Mara  fiev  ovv  evcKa  rfj<i  ;\y)eia9  ifidvdavov.^ 

"They  were  taught  letters  then  according  to  their  need."  This  may 
belong  to  a  later  date,  but  it  shows  how  easy  was  the  step  from  the 
physical  training,  for  which  the  boys  were  organized,  to  the  intel- 
lectual instruction  even  among  the  Spartans. 

Sappho's  school  for  young  ladies  shows  that  schooling  at  Lesbos 
had  developed  by  the  end  of  the  seventh  century  so  that  girls  could 
be  taught  music  and  poetry,  and  the  schools  of  the  philosophers  in 
the  next  century  make  it  plain  that  elementary  education  had  been 
so  long  in  existence  that  men  felt  the  need  for  higher  learning. 

We  have  already  discussed  the  early  use  of  writing.^  If  in- 
scriptions dating  from  the  eighth  century  have  come  down  to  us,  it 
would  seem  that  in  the  seventh  this  art  should  have  been  fairly  com- 
mon. Solon's  code  of  laws  and  even  Draco's,  some  twenty-five  years 
earlier,  are  said  by  Plutarch  to  have  been  written  on  tables  of  wood 
and  put  in  a  public  place.^  This  would  have  been  useless  unless 
large  numbers  of  the  people  could  read.  Furthermore  in  the  Maxims 
of  Chiron,  which  used  to  be  assigned  to  Hesiod  and  which  undoubt- 
edly was  composed  by  a  poet  of  his  school  at  an  early  date,^  the 
advice  was  given  that  a  child  should  not  be  taught  letters  when  under 
the  age  of  seven  years.  We  have  this  on  the  authority  of  Quintilian,' 
who  says  that  this  counsel  is  in  the  Maxims.  Add  to  this  the  well 
known  fact  that  by  590  B.  C.  mercenary  soldiers,  who  would  not  be 
expected  to  have  an  unusual  education,  were  able  to  scratch  their 
names  on  a  statue  in  Egypt.*'  All  this  would  make  it  appear  that 
with  reading  and  writing  so  common  by  the  end  of  the  seventh 
century  these  branches  must  have  been  taught  for  some  time  in 
schools. 

Other  law-givers  besides  Draco  and  Solon  made  laws  affecting 


^Chap.  XVI. 

-Many  arguments  that  Mure  uses  for  the  early  use  of  writing  may  serve  to  prove  the  early  exist- 
ence of  schools,  Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  HI,  pp. 
440-490. 

'Life  of  Solon,  Chap.  XXV. 

*Mure:     Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  U,  p.  431. 

'^Institutio  Oratorio,  I,  i,  15. 

"Bury:     History  of  Greece,  pp.  115-116. 


44  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

education.    Diodorus  says  of  Charondas  of  Catana : 

evofiodenja-e  fyap  tmv  ttoXlt&v  tois  vUi<i  airavra^ 
fiavddveiv  ypdfifiara  x^PVyo^o^V^  '^'*  ToXeo)?  Tois  fii- 
trOoxK  Tolf  Si8a<rKdkoi<>  .^ 

"For  he  made  the  law  that  all  the  sons  of  the  citizens  should  be 
instructed  in  letters,  with  the  city  furnishing  the  pay  to  the  teachers." 
The  date  of  Charondas  is  uncertain,  but  it  is  generally  placed  in  the 
seventh  century.^  Now  Mure  in  connection  with  this  passage  points 
out  that  Aristotle  in  his  Politics,  Book  II,  ix,  p.  69  Tauchn.  states 
that  Charondas  had  nothing  in  his  laws  differing  from  those  of  other 
early  law-givers  except  the  penalties  he  set  for  false  testimony.  If 
then  the  provision  for  public  education  given  above  was  really  in 
his  laws,  it  is  likely  that  it  appeared  in  those  of  other  law-givers 
of  the  period.^ 

We  have  already  referred  to  the  necessity  that  rested  upon  the 
nobles  to  be  educated  so  as  to  maintain  their  position  as  a  class  and 
as  individuals.  In  the  seventh  century  this  necessity  would  be  espe- 
cially strong,  for  the  people  were  beginning  to  assert  themselves, 
and  besides  single  nobles  were  in  some  cases  making  themselves 
supreme  and  establishing  tyrannies.  The  need  for  education  would 
doubtless  bring  about  the  establishment  of  schools  for  the  chil- 
dren of  the  aristocracy. 

In  view  of  the  evidence  presented  we  feel  there  is  good  ground 
for  believing  that  schools  had  been  in  existence  in  Greece  for  at 
least  a  generation  before  the  close  of  the  seventh  century. 

Here  we  close  our  discussion  of  the  period  from  776  to  610. 
We  have  studied  the  education  of  this  age,  have  learned  something 
of  the  methods  used  and  have  considered  the  subject  matter  of  edu- 
cation. Finally  we  have  discussed  the  date  of  the  establishment  of 
the  first  schools.  We  turn  now  to  the  years  following  to  trace  the 
development  from  610  to  525  B.  C. 


^Bibliotheca  Hutorica,  XU.  12,  5. 

'Holm:    History  of  Greece,  I,  p.  362. 

'Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  HI,  p.  449,  note  2.. 


THE  LATER  LYRIC  PERIOD 

We  shall  not  follow  the  same  outline  in  dealing  with  this  new 
era  that  we  have  used  with  other  periods.  Schools  are  now  estab- 
lished in  Greece  and  this  fact  makes  unnecessary  a  continuation  of 
much  of  the  former  method.  In  the  second  place,  it  becomes  im- 
possible to  consider  adequately  the  subject  matter  of  education,  for 
it  now  increases  rapidly  in  bulk.  Instead  of  discussing  in  detail 
all  these  points  included  in  the  outline  previously  used,  we  shall 
rather  take  up  some  of  the  important  movements  of  this  epoch  and 
show  their  bearing  on  education  and  close  with  a  statement  of  what 
was  being  done  in  the  schools  at  the  end  of  the  period. 

First  let  us  say  a  word  in  regard  to  this  new  age.  It  opens  with 
something  like  a  renaissance.  Suddenly  the  Greek  world  about  600 
B.  C.  made  new  achievements  in  government,  in  literature,  in  philos- 
ophy and  science,  in  architecture  and  art.^  The  era  so  strikingly 
ushered  in  was  marked  by  the  rule  of  tyrants  in  many  states^  and 
by  movements  in  the  direction  of  democracy.^  The  industrial  and 
commercial  activity  continued,*  but  new  colonies  were  no  longer 
founded  in  so  great  numbers.  One  reason  for  this  was  that  in  the 
East  the  further  advance  of  the  Greeks  was  checked  by  the  rising 
power  at  first  of  Lydia^  and  later  of  Persia.®  Similarly  in  the  West 
the  Carthaginians  were  resisting  more  effectively  what  they  consid- 
ered encroachments  on  their  domain.'^  These  facts  established  a 
new  international  situation.  In  Greece  itself  Sparta  was  the  most 
powerful  state.  The  rise  of  individualism  in  the  earlier  period  had 
its  effects  on  all  activities  in  the  lives  of  the  Greeks.  Literature 
continued  to  show  it.  It  appeared  in  art  in  the  signing  of  the  artist's 
name  to  his  statue  or  his  vase^ — in  government  in  the  democratic 
movements — in  industry  in  greater  specialization  on  the  part  of  the 
workman — in  religion  in  the  feeling  that  personal  relations  with 
the  deity  were  necessary,^  and  in  education  in  the  growing  insistence 
that  every  citizen  should  receive  training.  Literature,  art,  and  archi- 
tecture flourished.     Science  and  philosophy  had  their  rise.     Taking 


^This  was  the  age  of  Solon,  Alcaeus  and  Sappho,  and  Thales.     Greek  temples  at  Ephesus  and  Samoa 

were  constructed  and  the  Chest  of  Cypselus  was  carved. 
^Holm:    History  of  Greece,  I,  pp.  261-263. 
Mb.,  pp.  258-260. 

*Belooh:    Griechische  Geschichte,  I,  p.  357. 
"Busolt:     Griechische  Geschichte,  II,  pp.  459-461. 
"lb.,  pp.  514-518. 

'Meyer:    Geschichte  des  Altertums,  II,  p.  695. 
*Beloch:     Griechische  Geschichte,  I,  p.  309. 
•Fairbanks:     Handbook  of  Greek  Religion,  pp.  231-232. 

45 


46  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

all  this  into  consideration,  we  may  truly  call  this  era  a  period  of 
development  and  not  only  of  development,  but  also  of  a  good  degree 
of  achievement. 

Contemporary  literary  sources  to  use  in  our  study  of  the  years 
from  610  to  525  are  very  limited.  The  later  Homeric  Hymns  and 
fragments  from  the  elegiac,  iambic,  and  lyric  poets  and  from  the  early 
philosophers  are  about  all  that  we  have.  However  we  have  far 
more  information  about  this  period  from  later  writers  than  we  da 
of  the  years  before  610  B.  C.  We  also  have  considerable  archaeolog- 
ical evidence  dating  from  this  time,  ruins  of  buildings,  statues, 
reliefs,  vases,  coins,  «nd  inscriptions.  The  modern  authorities  we 
have  used  are  the  same  as  for  the  early  lyric  period. 

It  would  be  well  before  we  go  further  in  the  discussion  of  this 
period  to  note  what  the  schools  were  like  at  its  beginning.  Our  chief 
source  for  this  information  is  Aeschines'  reference,  in  his  oration 
against  Timarchus,  to  the  laws  of  Draco  and  Solon.  This  has  already 
been  mentioned.  It  is  generally  assumed  that  Aeschines  refers  here 
far  more  to  Solon  than  to  Draco.^ 

From  this  passage  from  the  Timarchus  referred  to^  we  learn 
that  the  schools  and  palaestras  should  not  open  before  sunrise  or 
remain  open  after  sunset.  From  this  we  would  infer  that  schools 
were  in  session  most  of  the  day  and  as  Aeschines  is  speaking  here  of 
the  morals  of  school-boys,  it  would  seem  that  training  in  the  pa- 
laestra was  part  of  their  education  along  with  the  study  at  school. 
Again  the  pedagogue  is  mentioned,  which  would  indicate  that  already 
at  this  time  in  Athens  the  children  were  attended  to  and  from  school 
by  a  slave  selected  for  the  purpose.  Further  the  choregus  who  is  to 
select  the  cyclic  chorus  of  boys  and  have  general  charge  of  their 
training  must  be  over  forty  years  of  age.  While  this  training  in  the 
cyclic  choruses  was  not  part  of  the  educational  system,  still  for 
those  participating  there  was  valuable  instruction  in  singing  and 
dancing.  As  each  cyclic  chorus  consisted  of  fifty,  this  advantage  was 
extended  to  a  goodly  number. 

From  Plutarch  we  learn  that  Solon  required  that  every  father 
should  teach  his  son  a  trade,  if  he  wished  his  son  to  care  for  Iiim  in 
his  old  age.^  So  industrial  education  accompanied  or  followed  the 
training  in  the  schools. 


'Freeman :     Schools  of  Hellas,  p.  68. 

^Sections  9-11. 

"Life  of  Solon,  chap.  XXII. 


The  Later  Lyric  Period  47 

Solon  also  encouraged  physical  exercise  by  constructing  the  first 
gymnasiums  in  Athens,  the  Academy  and  the  Cynosarges,^  and  by 
establishing  a  reward  of  500  drachmas  to  a  winner  at  Olympia  and 
100  for  a  winner  in  the  Isthmian  games.^ 

This  much  we  have  of  the  legislation  of  Solon  dealing  with 
Athenian  education.  From  a  very  different  source  we  have  proof  of 
the  existence  of  music  schools  in  the  sixth  century.  An  Athenian  vase 
of  that  period  depicts  such  a  school.  If  there  were  any  question 
about  it,  it  is  removed  by  its  resemblance  to  an  undoubted  representa- 
tion of  a  music  school  on  a  fifth  century  vase.^^ 

We  have  then  the  school,  the  palaestra,  and  the  music  school, 
although  the  last  may  have  been,  in  early  times  at  least,  identical 
with  the  first,  the  instruction  in  music  being  given  during  part  of 
the  day.  Reading  and  writing  would  be  taught.  Passages  from 
Homer*  and  probably  from  other  poets  would  be  studied.  The  boy 
would  learn  to  play  the  lyre  and  to  sing.  In  the  palaestra  he  would 
be  trained  in  the  ordinary  athletic  contests  that  were  used  in  the 
public  festivals.^ 

We  turn  from  the  discussion  of  Athenian  education  to  that  of 
other  states.  Sparta's  training  has  already  been  referred  to.  In  the 
time  of  Solon  it  probably  had  most  of  the  peculiarities  for  which 
it  was  noted.  In  Sparta  the  education  was  carried  on  by  the  gov- 
ernment. It  was  required  of  all  Spartan  boys,  and  the  expenses  were 
borne  by  the  state,  while  at  Athens  the  schools  were  private  venture 
institutions,  but  were  supervised  by  the  state.*' 

Cretan  education  was  similar  to  that  of  Sparta  with  emphasis 
laid  on  the  physical  side.  However  the  Cretan  boy  did  not  enter 
upon  his  rigorous  military  training  till  the  age  of  seventeen.^ 

Of  the  schools  of  other  parts  of  Greece  at  this  time  we  know  little, 
but  if  Athens  had  schools,  it  is  likely  that  Corinth,  Sicyon,  and  the 
larger  cities  of  Asia  Minor  and  Italy  and  Sicily  had  them,  for  these 
after  Sparta  were  the  foremost  Greek  cities,  of  the  period.  Athens 
was  only  coming  to  have  equal  importance  with  them. 

One  of  the  localities  where  culture  had  made  rapid  progress  was 


'Davidson :     Education  of  the  Creel:  People,  p.  73. 

'Plutarch:     Life  of  Solon,  chap.  XXIII. 

^Freeman :     Schools  of  Hellas,  pp.  52-53. 

*Mahaffy:     Old  Greek  Education,  p.  37. 

Tor  details  of  instruction  at  a  later  date  see  Davidson :     Education  of  the  Greek  People,  pp.  65-63. 

"Drever:     Greek  Education,  p.  22. 

^Bury  :     History  of  Greece,  p.  138. 


48  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

the  island  of  Lesbos  with  its  principal  city,  Mytilene.  Terpander  and 
Arion  are  said  to  have  been  natives  of  this  island  and  here  lived  at 
the  time  of  Solon  the  lyric  poets,  Alcaeus  and  Sappho,  and  the  states- 
man, Pittacus,  one  of  the  Seven  Wise  Men.  So  Lesbos  may  well  have 
been  a  center  of  culture  about  the  year  600  B.  C. 

It  was  not  far  from  this  date  that  Sappho  had  her  famous  school 
at  Mytilene.  This  school  was  for  young  women.  The  Aeolians,  espe- 
cially those  of  Lesbos,  gave  more  freedom  to  their  women  than  did  the 
lonians  and  therefore  such  an  institution  was  possible  here,  while  it 
would  not  have  been  at  Athens  in  the  same  period.^  It  is  to  be  noted 
however  that  there  were  girls  from  Ionian  cities  among  her  pupils. 
We  have  preserved  to  us  the  names  of  fourteen  places  from  which 
young  women  came.^  Of  these  most  were  from  the  mainland  of  Asia 
Minor  and  the  adjacent  islands,  but  there  was  at  least  one  from 
Greece.  So  we  have  at  this  early  date  a  school  for  girls,  attended  by 
many  from  a  distance. 

We  raise  the  question  just  what  this  school  was  and  for  what  it 
existed.  F.  B.  Jevons  in  his  History  of  Greek  Literature  refers  to  it  as 
a  "school,  following,  'fringe,'  coterie,  or  club."  He  says  that  the 
object  of  their  meetings  was  literary  and  artistic,  and  personal  affec- 
tion was  the  basis  of  the  relations  between  the  teacher  and  pupil.^ 
Wilamowitz-Mollendorff  in  his  book,  Sappho  und  Simonides,  de- 
scribes the  school  thus,  "Ihr  Haus  ist  ein  Musensitz,  den  auch  nicht  die 
Trauer  entweihen  darf,  die  Jungfrauen  der  Umgegend  kommen,  bei 
ihr  musische  Erziehung  zu  sucheri,  sie  dichet  ihnen  das  Hochzeitleid, 
dichtet  den  Gottern  Cultlieder"*  Culling  from  the  different  frag- 
ments of  Sappho  that  have  come  down  to  us,  especially  from  the  re- 
cently discovered  ones,  he  enumerates  as  follows  the  "Freuden  dieses 
Kreises :"  to  pick  flowers,  to  adorn  themselves,  sweet  sleep  when  they 
had  danced  themselves  tired,  participation  in  the  festivals,  visits  to 
all  the  shrines,  where  in  dance  and  song  they  brought  to  fulfillment 
what  they  had  prepared  for  in  the  house  of  their  teacher.^ 

When  her  pupils  left  Sappho,  they  made  use  of  their  education 
elsewhere.  One  of  the  recently  discovered  fragments  has  these  lines 
referring  to  a  former  student  then  in  Sardis. 


•Wright:     Short  History   of  Greek  Literature,   p.   100. 
"Patrick:     Sappho  and  the  Island  of  Lesbos,  chap.  V. 
•Page  138. 
♦Page  73. 
"Paue  51. 


The  Later  Lyric  Period  49 

iwv  Se  Avhaiaiv  ifMirpeTrerai  yxjvai- 
Kea-aiVy  «?  ttot'  aeXico 
,  SvvT09  a  poSoScLKTvKo^:  aeXdwa 

irdvra  ireppe^oia'  darpa.* 

"But  now  she  is  prominent  among  the  Lydian  women,  as  when  the  sun 
sets,  the  rosy-fingered  moon  is  superior  to  all  the  stars."  So  the 
influence  of  the  school  went  forth  even  to  barbarian  cities.  And 
Sappho's  was  not  the  only  institution  of  the  kind  in  Mytilene,  for  one 
was  presided  over  by  Andromeda,  a  former  pupil  of  Sappho's  who 
later  became  a  rival,  and  another  was  conducted  by  Gorgo.^  So  the 
education  of  women  was  cared  for  in  one  Greek  city.  But  so  far  as 
we  know  the  situation  in  Mytilene  was  unique.  In  general  women 
of  the  higher  classes  were  living  more  and  more  a  retired  life  in 
their  own  homes,  seldom  appearing  in  public  except  at  festivals.^ 
At  Sparta  they  had  physical  training  that  they  might  bear  healthy 
children,  and  they  also  sang  the  parthenia  in  choruses,*  as  has  been 
already  stated.  But  we  must  conclude  that  for  the  ordinary  Greek 
woman  of  this  period  there  was  little  intellectual  training.  She 
learned  from  her  mother  how  to  perform  the  domestic  duties  that 
were  to  fall  to  her  lot,  and  beyond  that  she  had  very  little  education.^ 

The  early  years  of  the  sixth  century,  which  we  are  now  consid- 
ering, might  be  called  the  age  of  tyrants  in  Greece,  for  while  the 
tyrannies  in  the  different  states  were  not  wholly  contemporaneous,  at 
no  time  did  the  tyrants  flourish  more  than  during  the  first  half  of 
this  century.  In  many  ways  their  control  of  their  cities  had  lasting 
results  on  the  life  of  the  people,  results  that  affected  education  pro- 
foundly. So  it  will  be  well  for  us  to  consider  some  of  the  features 
of  this  movement.^ 

Most  of  the  tyrants  furthered  the  development  of  their  states. 
Murte  in  his  Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient 
Greece,  referring  to  this  period  says,  "A  freer  course  was  opened  to 
the  traffic  of  social  and  civilized  life  in  the  different  states  of  Hellas, 
both  with  each  other  and  with  the  great  neighboring  monarchies.  It 
was  the  obvious  interest  of  the  Greek  political  usurpers  to  maintain 
friendly  relations,  not  only  among  themselves,  but  with  foreign  powers 

^Fragments  Berlin,  No.  5,  11.  6-9. 

^Wright:    Short  History  of  Greek  Literature,  p.  100. 

HJardner  and  Devons :    Manual  of  Creek  Antiquities,  pp.  342-343. 

*Grote:    HUtory  of  Greece,  II,  pp.  384-385. 

"Freeman:     SchooU  of  Hellas,  p.  48.  ,„  oo     n  i  o-  .  „ 

'For  account  of  tyrannies  in  Greece  see  Grote:  History  of  Greece,  III,  pp.  18-28;  Holm:  History 
of  Greece,  I,  pp.  261-263;  Beloch:  GriechUche  Geschichte,  I,  pp.  347-371,  402-427;  Busolt: 
Griechische  Geschichte,  I,  pp.  625-«l;  Meyer:    Geschichte  des  AUertums,  II,  pp.  608-613. 


50  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

and  the  result  was  a  more  extended  cultivation  of  those  branches  of 
elegant  art  and  science  in  which  the  Oriental  nations  were  still  in 
advance  of  the  Greeks."^ 

Beloch  in  his  Griechische  Geschichte  refers  also  to  the  economic 
and  spiritual  betterment  of  the  people  under  the  tyrants.  He  says 
that  now  for  the  first  time  the  government  realized  its  duty  for  the 
well-being  of  the  citizens  and  the  furthering  of  business  and  industry,^ 

Many  of  the  tyrants  were  patrons  of  art  and  literature,  inviting 
to  their  courts  men  of  renown  in  other  states.  Some  were  great 
builders.  Again  religion  was  fostered  by  the  tyrants,  temples  were 
erected,  festivals  established  and  more  splendor  added  to  the  forms 
of  worship. 

The  tyrants  who  were  especially  prominent  in  the  early  part 
of  the  sixth  century  were  Periander  of  Corinth  and  Clisthenes  of 
Sicyon;  a  little  later  came  Polycrates  of  Samos,  Theagenes  of  Megara, 
and  Pisistratus  of  Athens.  Under  each  of  these  their  respective 
cities  developed  along  material,  intellectual,  and  aesthetic  lines. 

Perhaps  we  can  appreciate  best  what  the  states  owed  to  their 
tyrants,  if  we  take  the  example  of  Pisistratus'  rule  in  Athens  for 
further  consideration.^  He  gave  attention  to  the  state  religion,  he 
fostered  the  worship  of  Demeter  at  Eleusis,  he  established  the  Diony- 
siac  festival  and  the  Panathenaea,  which  became  the  great  glory  of 
the  city.*  He  also  was  interested  in  Orphism  and  was  its  patron.^ 
He  developed  the  taste  of  the  lower  classes,  furnishing  intellectual 
and  social  amusement,"  as  in  the  festivals  already  mentioned;  the 
latest  lyric  poems  were  sung  and  Homer  was  publicly  read.'^  He 
encouraged  literature;  according  to  tradition  he  had  a  commission 
of  three  learned  men  collect  the  Homeric  poems  and  edit  them. 
However  that  may  be,  there  is  better  authority  for  the  statement  that 
his  son,  Hipparchus,  had  passages  from  Homer  recited  in  their 
proper  order  at  the  Panathenaic  festival.^  Under  the  Pisistratidae 
there  came  to  Athens  Lasus  of  Hermione,  a  musician,  and  Anacreon 
of  Teos,  who  had  previously  been  at  the  court  of  Polycrates,  and 


iVol.  Ill,  p.  384. 

•Vol.  I,  p.  357. 

*For  rule  of  Pisistratus  gee   Meyer:     Geschichte  des   Altertums,   II,   pp.   771-777,   783-791;    Busolt: 

Grietchiche  Geschichte,  II,  pp.  295-400. 
'Meyer:    Geschichte  des  Altertums,  II,  p.  785. 
"Holm :    History  of  Greece,  I,  p.  412. 
"Mahaffy:    Social  Life  in  Greece,  p.  87. 
'lb.,  pp.  87-88. 
"Busolt:    Griechische  Geschichte,  II,  p.  373. 


The  Later  Lyric  Period  51 

Simonides  of  Ceos.^  Pisistratus  "probably  also  collected  the  works 
of  other  poets, — called  by  Aulus  Gellius  (N.  A.  vi,  17),  in  lan- 
guage not  well  suited  to  the  sixth  century  B.  C.  a  library  thrown 
open  to  the  public."^ 

He  was  a  great  builder.  During  his  rule  there  were  constructed 
an  entrance  to  the  Acropolis,^  the  outer  peristyle  of  the  temple  of 
Athena  Polias,*  the  hall  for  the  mysteries  at  Eleusis,^  a  temple  of 
Apollo,^  and  there  was  started  the  great  temple  of  Olympian  Zeus 
south-east  of  the  Acropolis.^ 

Under  Pisistratus  sculpture  developed.  Achermos  of  Chios, 
Aristion  of  Paros,  and  Philermus  either  came  to  Athens  or  made 
statues  that  were  brought  there.^  During  his  rule  the  pediment- 
group  of  the  temple  of  Athena  Polias  was  made,  representing  the 
battle  of  the  gods  and  giants.^  The  statues  of  the  "maidens"  found 
on  the  Acropolis  belong  largely  to  the  period  of  his  rule  or  that  of  his 
sons.^**  With  the  encouragement  of  the  tyrants  industry  developed, 
especially  along  the  line  of  vase-making.^^ 

While  this  development  was  most  marked  at  Athens,  there  was 
great  prosperity  in  many  other  cities  under  the  rule  of  their  tyrants. 

We  have  now  to  ask  ourselves  in  what  ways  did  these  condi- 
tions affect  education.  In  the  first  place,  intellectual  and  aesthetic 
interests,  which  have  their  part  in  the  subject  matter  of  education, 
found  in  many  a  tyrant  a  patron.  In  a  growing  state  these  are  often 
developed  under  great  difficulties  because  of  poverty  and  lack  of 
encouragement,  but  when  a  ruler  shows  his  interest  and  gives  lavishly 
in  money  that  the  highest  ideals  of  poetry,  music,  architecture,  and 
art  may  find  expression,  great  impetus  is  given  to  study  along  these 
lines. 

Again  when  the  leading  poets,  musicians,  architects,  and  sculp- 
tors of  the  Greek  world  were  gathered  at  the  court  of  a  tyrant,  the 
association  of  these  with  each  other  would  tend  to  give  all  a  more 
liberal  education.  In  fact  Wilamowitz  says  that  Simonides  obtained 
his  poetic  training  at  the  court  of  the  Pisistratidae  at  Athens  and 


>Ib.,  II,  pp.  378-379. 

=^Grote:     History  of  Greece,  IV,  p.  110. 

'Busolt:     Griechische  Geschichte,   II,   p.   338. 

*Ib.,  p.  338. 

'Meyer:     Geschichte  des  Altertums,  II,  p.  785. 

'Busolt:     Griechische  Geschichte,  II,  p.  342. 

'lb.,  p.  342. 

«Ib.,  p.  336. 

"lb.,  pp.  339-341. 

"lb.,  p.  336. 

"lb.,  pp.  331-335. 


52  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

adds  this: — "Dort  hat  Simonides  am  Hofe  des  Hipparchos  die  hohe 
Schule  der  Poesie  und  namentlich  der  Musik  durchgemacht."^ 

Then  too  we  find  here  learning  valued  for  its  own  sake.  Schol- 
ars were  given  an  importance  that  they  scarcely  had  before.  In 
fact  the  term  scholar  could  hardly  be  applied  to  any  Greek  before 
the  bejrining  of  the  sixth  century.  Such  a  man  was  Onomacritus. 
According  to  tradition  he  was  asked  by  Pisistratus  to  head  the 
commission  that  was  to  edit  the  Homeric  poems,  and  he  is  said  to 
have  collected  the  prophecies  of  Musaeus^  and  to  have  been  a 
leader  in  the  Orphic  religion.^  Tradition  also  states  that  his  col- 
leagues, with  whom  he  revised  the  text  of  Homer,  were  Orpheus 
of  Crotona  and  Zopyrus  of  Heraclea.*  If  there  is  any  truth  in  this 
statement,  the  tyrant  gathered  about  him  learned  men  from  distant 
cities.  The  so-called  library  also  would  be  an  encouragement  to 
scholarship,  for  it  placed  at  the  disposal  of  those  who  were  inter- 
ested, resources  that  they  could  not  hope  to  own  themselves. 

While  we  have  no  definite  evidence  for  it,  it  would  not  seem 
unlikely  that  the  tyrants  may  have  favored  existing  schools  or 
established  new  ones,  since  they  had  so  much  at  heart  the  intellec- 
tual development  of  their  people.  At  any  rate  the  prosperity  enjoyed 
under  the  tyrants  made  money  more  plentiful  and  so  made  it  pos- 
sible for  more  people  to  place  their  children  in  the  schools.  The 
intellectual  and  political  development  of  the  common  people  too 
would  tend  to  lead  more  persons  to  desire  the  advantages  of  an 
education.  Consequently  whatever  political  evils  may  have  been 
involved  in  the  rule  of  the  tyrants,  we  cannot  but  believe  that  it 
was  a  real  benefit  to  the  cause  of  education. 

The  development  of  literature  and  art  under  the  tyrants  has 
been  mentioned.  We  ought  to  consider  a  little  further  what  was 
accomplished  along  these  lines  during  the  whole  period  from  610 
to  525,  for  education  is  directly  concerned  with  the  achievements 
of  poets,  architects,  and  artists. 

Starting  with  poetry^  we  find  that  in  610  Mimnermus  was 
probably  still  composing  his  elegies.^     A  little  later  Solon  used 


^Sappho  und  Simonides,  p.  139. 

'Meyer:    Geschichte  des  Alter  turns,  \\,  p.  786. 

'Holm:    History  of  Greece,  I,  p.  411.  ' 

Mb.,  p.  412. 

Tor  the  poetry  of  the  period  see  the  brief  account  in  Wright's  Short  History  of  Greek  Literature, 

pp.  76-85,  95-104,  108-118.     For  a  longer  account  see  Mure:  Critical  History  of  the  Language 

and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  III,  pp.  209-396. 
'Mure:    Critical  History  of  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  HI,  p.  332. 


The  Later  Lyric  Period  53 

the  elegy  for  political  purposes.  Alcaeus  and  Sappho  were  con- 
temporaries, who  developed  the  personal  lyric.  Choral  lyric  poetry 
was  produced  by  Stesichorus  of  Himera  and  at  Corinth  by  Arion. 
The  latter  organized  the  dithyrambic  chorus,  which  by  the  close  of 
the  sixth  century  had  developed  into  the  drama.  The  personal  lyric 
was  continued  by  Anacreon  and  many  inferior  writers,  while  The- 
ognis  produced  elegiac  poetry  full  of  aphorisms.  Phocylides  of 
Miletus  also  composed  aphorisms,  while  Hipponax  of  Ephesus  was 
a  satirist.  The  last  of  the  Cyclic  poems,  the  Telegonia  of  Eugammon 
of  Cyrene^  and  the  most  of  the  shorter  Homeric  Hymns^  belong  to 
the  sixth  century.  Some  of  the  philosophers  wrote  in  verse.  Simo- 
nides,  the  great  writer  of  epigrams,  was  beginning  his  work  at  the 
close  of  the  period  in  525.  Prose  was  also  beginning  to  appear 
in  the  works  of  the  logographers,  who  from  the  middle  of  the  sixth 
century  wrote  of  the  legends  connected  with  particular  places.' 
Though  we  do  not  hear  much  about  it,  oratory  was  doubtless  being 
developed,  except  perhaps  in  states  ruled  by  tyrants. 

In  this  brief  survey  we  should  observe  how  widely  extended 
was  the  interest  in  poetry.  In  addition  to  the  poets  in  Greece  many 
writers  were  from  the  islands.  On  the  mainland  of  Asia  Minor 
Miletus  has  its  author  and  Sicily  is  represented  in  Stesichorus, 
while  Eugammon  lived  in  far  off  Africa.  This  diffusion  of  litera- 
ture points  to  a  very  widespread  culture  among  the  Greeks  and  per- 
haps to  the  existence  of  schools  very  generally  throughout  the  Hel- 
lenic world. 

So  too  with  architecture  and  art,  the  fact  that  they  flourished 
at  this  time  shows  that  the  taste  of  the  people  was  being  raised, 
so  that  they  appreciated  such  things.  Furthermore  the  many  works 
of  art  about  them  would  be  an  aid  to  education. 

This  period  was  a  great  building  era.  Perhaps  at  no  other 
time  were  so  many  temples  erected  by  the  Greeks.*  Some  of  these 
have  already  been  mentioned.  The  list  included  the  temple  of 
Artemis  at  Ephesus,  the  temple  of  Hera  at  Samos,  the  oldest  temples 
at  Selinus,  the  temple  of  Apollo  at  Corinth,  and  the  temple  of 
Athena  Polias  at  Athens.     In  other  fields  of  architecture  we  have 


•lb.  H,  p.  289. 

'Sikes  and  Allen:     Homeric  Hymns,  p.  230. 
'Jevons:     Greek  Literature,  pp.  297-299. 

*Beloch:     Griechische   Geschichte,   I,    pp.   420-421.     For   further  account   of   this   building  activity, 
see  pages  cited  and  those  immediately  following. 


54  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

the  hall  of  ceremonies  at  Eleusis  and  also  the  treasure-houses  at 
Olympia  and  Delphi. 

In  sculpture  the  advance  was  perhaps  not  so  rapid.^  It  took 
longer  to  get  free  from  archaic  imperfections.  We  have  the  line 
of  so-called  ApoUos,  each  showing  advance  over  the  preceding  one. 
There  are  also  the  seated  figures  at  Branchidae  and  statues  of  the 
draped  female  type  culminating  in  the  "maidens"  of  the  Acropolis. 
There  should  be  mentioned  too  the  porus  and  early  marble  sculp- 
tures also  found  on  the  Acropolis,  For  reliefs  there  are  the  metopes 
of  the  two  earliest  temples  at  Salinus,  the  "Harpy"-tomb  reliefs, 
and,  coming  from  the  close  of  the  period,  the  so-called  "Man  of 
Marathon."  These  are  a  few  representative  sculptures  of  those  ta 
be  found  in  our  museums,  which  of  course  altogether  constitute 
but  a  small  fraction  of  the  works  originally  produced. 

In  vase-painting  there  was  a  continued  advance.-  The  geo- 
metric style  had  given  way  to  the  black-figured  vases  and  soon  after 
the  middle  of  the  sixth  century  the  red-figured  vases  first  appeared.^ 
Athens  became  the  great  center  for  the  manufacture  and  sale  of 
pottery. 

All  these  works  of  art  show  a  rapid  progress  that  was  the 
result  of  careful  observation  and  training.  Besides  the  artistic 
education  this  implies  there  was  also  the  growing  culture  of  the 
people,  which  was  in  part  the  cause  and  in  part  the  result  of  the 
activity  along  aesthetic  lines. 

The  rise  of  philosophy*  about  600  B.  C.  indicated  the  efficiency 
of  the  earlier  education  and  the  schools  of  philosophy  became  the 
higher  institutions  of  learning  in  the  sixth  century.  Here  also  was 
developed  in  part  the  subject  matter  of  later  instruction.  So  it  will 
be  well  for  us  to  review  briefly  the  work  of  the  early  philosophers. 

Philosophy  begins  in  Greece  with  the  Seven  Wise  Men,  who 
lived  about  600.  Grote  says  of  them  that  they  were  the  "first  per- 
sons who  ever  acquired  an  Hellenic  reputation  grounded  on  mental 
competency  apart  from  poetical  genius  or  eifect,"^  Their  philosophy 
however  was  a  certain  worldly  wisdom  rather  than  scientific  inves- 
tigation or  speculation  in  the  field  of  metaphysics.    Aside  from  the 


'For  the  sculpture  of  the  period,  see  Gardner:     Handbdok  of  Creek  Sculpture,  pp.  94-202. 

-For  vase-painting  of  the  period,  see  Walters:     History  of  Ancient  Pottery,  I,  chaps.   IX,  X. 

^Busolt:     Griechische  Geschichte,  U,  pp.  331-335. 

*For  an  account  of  the  rise  of  philosophy,  see  Fairbanks:     The  First  Philosophert  of  Greece.     For 

a  brief  account,  see  Grote:     History  of  Greece,  IV,  pp.  3ii0-399. 
'History  of  Greece,  IV,  p.  96. 


The  Later  Lyric  Period  55 

use  that  was  made  of  their  aphorisms,  they  cannot  have  contributed 
much  directly  to  education. 

This  statement  however  is  not  true  with  respect  to  one  of  their 
number,  Thales  of  Miletus,  who  was  the  first  of  the  physicists,  those 
philosophers  of  the  sixth  and  early  fifth  centuries  who  directed  their 
studies  especially  toward  nature.  The  great  step  in  advance  made 
by  the  first  of  these  men  can  hardly  be  overemphasized.  Before 
this  the  phenomena  of  nature  were  considered  to  be  due  directly  to 
the  presence  of  the  gods  in  the  universe.  The  Theogony  presents 
the  early  view  of  the  origin  of  things  on  earth.  But  Thales  and  his 
successors  turned  from  all  this  and  sought  in  nature  itself  the  causes 
of  all  phenomena.^  He  is  said  to  have  traveled  in  Egypt  and 
Chaldea,  seats  of  ancient  learning.^  In  the  former  country  we  are 
told  that  he  ascertained  the  height  of  the  pyramids  from  the  length 
of  their  shadow.^  In  Chaldea  he  may  have  learned  the  method  of 
determining  the  time  of  eclipses,  for  he  is  said  to  have  foretold  the 
eclipse  of  May  28,  585  B.  C*  The  Greek  scholars  of  the  fourth 
century  ascribed  to  him  the  first  beginnings  in  geometry,  astronomy, 
and  the  study  of  nature.^  Of  his  researches  Bury  writes,  "He  sought 
for  a  common  substance,  a  single  principle  which  should  explain 
the  variety  of  nature  and  reduce  the  world  to  unity  and  system;  it 
is  a  small  matter  that  he  found  this  principle  in  water:  it  is  his 
eternal  merit  to  have  sought  it."^ 

Thales  was  the  pioneer  and  deserves  especial  attention.  With 
respect  to  the  other  philosophers  we  shall  note  only  the  facts  that 
concern  education  most  closely.  Anaximander,  also  of  Miletus, 
comes  next  in  order  after  Thales.  He  was  more  metaphysical  than 
Thales.^  He  made  geometrical  experiments.^  He  was  the  first 
also  to  draw  the  coast-lines  on  a  tablet,  probably  of  brass,  making 
a  map  of  the  lands  about  the  Aegean.  This  marks  the  beginning 
of  rational  study  of  geography  in  Greece.^ 

We  mention  in  passing  Anaximines  of  the  school  of  Thales,  who 


Mb.,  p.  380. 

Hh.,  p.  383. 

^Holm:     History  of  Greece,  I,  p.  346. 

«Ib.,  p.  346. 

'Grote:    History  of  Greece,  IV,  p.  384. 

"History  of  Greece,  p.  222. 

'Grote:     History  of  Greece,  IV,  pp.  386-387. 

''Holm:    History  of  Greece,  1,  p.  347. 

"Grote:    History  of  Greece,  IV,  p.  387. 


56  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

made  air  the  source  of  all  things/  and  Pherecydes  of  Syros,  said 
to  have  been  a  teacher  of  Pythagoras^  and  the  earliest  Greek  prose 
writer,^  Most  of  the  other  early  philosophers,  if  they  wished  to  hand 
down  their  views  to  posterity  in  writing,  used  the  medium  of  poetry. 
Another  philosopher  of  a  slightly  later  date  than  Anaximander 
was  Xenophanes  of  Colophon,  who  went  to  Italy  a  little  after  the 
middle  of  the  sixth  century  and  founded  the  Eleatic  school.  This 
school  held  that  nature  was  one  unchangeable  and  indivisible  whole 
permeated  with  God.*  He  assumed  a  critical  attitude  toward  the 
anthropomorphic  view  of  the  gods  held  by  his  contemporaries,  as 
is  shown  by  certain  fragments  of  his  poetry,  which  have  come  down 
to  us.^  He  also  found  fault  with  the  undue  honors  bestowed  on 
successful  athletes.**  His  revolutionary  attitude  and  his  independent 
criticism  were  doubtless  much  needed  factors  in  the  education  of 
his  time. 

A  far  greater  influence  was  exerted  on  education  by  Pythagoras, 
who  in  Schmidt's  Geschichte  der  Pddagogik  is  called  the  educational 
theorist  of  the  Dorians,  the  first  great  star  in  the  heaven  of  peda- 
gogy.^ Born  about  580  in  Samos,  he  is  said  to  have  traveled  to 
Egypt,  Babylon,  and  Persia.  In  529  he  settled  in  Crotona  and  estab- 
lished his  school  there.^  As  he  left  no  written  statement  of  his 
views,''  it  is  hard  to  tell  just  what  they  were,  for  later  additions  to 
his  philosophy  were  handed  down  under  his  name,  but  this  much 
appears  certain,  that  he  believed  in  immortality  and  the  transmigra- 
tion of  souls.^°  We  however  are  more  interested  in  the  school  or 
brotherhood  that  he  formed.  Each  prospective  pupil  was  examined 
as  to  his  moral  qualities.  When  admitted,  the  pupil  had  to  pass 
through  a  novitiate,  during  which  time  he  was  not  allowed  to  speak 
and  never  saw  the  master,  who  lectured  behind  a  curtain.^^  The 
students  lived  together  in  the  same  group  of  buildings.^-  Their  life 
was  ascetic.^'*     They  were  given  physical  training  and  were  taught 


'Holm :     History  of  Greece,  I,  p.  348. 

='Grote:     History  of  Greece,  IV,  p.  390. 

»Ib.,  p.  97. 

Mb.,  pp.  387-388. 

Tragments,  Nos.  16,  17. 

"Fragments,  No.  2. 

'Vol.  I,  pp.  516-517. 

"lb.,  pp.  517-519. 

"Painter:     History  of  Education,  p.  43. 

'"Mayor:     Sketch  of  Ancient  Philosophy,  p.  9. 

"Schmidt:     Geschichte  der  Pddagogik,  I,  pp.  523-524. 

'=lb.,  p.  522. 

"Mayor:    Sketch  of  Ancient  Philosophy,  p.  9. 


The  Later  Lyric  Period  57 

music  and  especially  mathematics.^  This  subject  Pythagoras  de- 
veloped in  a  peculiar  way,  giving  a  mystical  value  to  numbers  that 
seems  to  us  quite  fantastic.-  Moral  and  religious  instruction  was 
also  given. ^  Besides  these  branches  physics,  geography,  metaphys- 
ics and  medicine  were  taught.*  Harmony  in  all  things  was  insisted 
upon  and  pupils  and  teacher  lived  in  relations  of  the  greatest  friend- 
liness.^ The  brotherhood  was  established  in  other  cities  of  Magna 
Graecia,  but  its  whole  tendency  was  aristocratic.^  It  incurred  the 
wrath  of  the  common  people  and  schools  were  destroyed  and  mem- 
bers slain  or  driven  out.  Pythagoras  himself  met  with  persecution, 
but  the  manner  of  his  death  is  uncertain.^ 

This  school  of  Pythagoras  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  experi- 
ments in  education  that  was  made  in  early  Greece  and  though  the 
brotherhoods  were  soon  broken  up,  the  teachings  of  Pythagoras  and 
his  educational  methods  had  a  lasting  influence  on  Greek  education. 

Of  later  philosophers,  who  flourished  after  525,  we  shall  not 
speak.  Enough  has  been  said  to  show  the  great  advance  in  educa- 
tion that  was  due  to  the  rise  of  philosophy.  The  early  philosophers 
in  the  attitude  that  they  took  toward  nature  and  man  laid  the  founda- 
tion for  future  educational  theory.^  The  subject  matter  of  instruc- 
tion was  greatly  extended  in  astronomy,  mathematics,  physics,  and 
metaphysics.  The  philosophers,  gathering  pupils  about  them,  thus 
established  higher  schools,  in  which  no  one  was  too  old  to  learn. 
Add  to  this  the  stimulus  that  was  given  to  learning,  the  intellectual 
curiosity  that  was  aroused  in  regard  to  the  facts  of  nature,  and  the 
enthusiasm  that  was  evoked  for  knowledge,  and  we  shall  realize  that 
the  work  of  the  early  philosophers  was  one  of  transcendent  impor- 
tance in  the  development  of  Greek  education. 

In  the  realm  of  religion  too  movements  were  taking  place  that 
were  afi^ecting  the  intellectual  life  of  the  people.  While  the  state 
worship  was  still  maintained  with  an  ever  increasing  magnificence, 
there  were  cravings  that  it  did  not  satisfy.  Adolf  Holm  says,  "Every 
one  supplemented  the  deficiency  according  to  his  inner  needs  by 
the  ceremonials  of  the  mysteries,  by  philosophical  theology,  or  by 


'lb.,  p.  8. 

=Ib.,  pp.  10-12. 

^Painter:     History  of  Education,  pp.  47-48. 

nb..  p.  47. 

^Schmidt:     Ceschichte  der  Pddagogik,  I,  pp.  522-523. 

"Grote:     History  of  Greece,  IV,  pp.  404-407. 

'lb.,  pp.  409-410. 

^Schmidt:     Ceschichte  der  Pddagogik,  I,  p.  582. 


58  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

a  combination  of  both."^  We  have  discussed  philosophy,  it  remains 
for  us  to  take  up  briefly  the  Eleusinian  Mysteries  and  Orphism. 

The  Demeter  worship^  was  the  first  to  become  established.  One 
of  the  Homeric  Hymns,  the  Hymn  to  Demeter,  was  composed  in 
honor  of  this  worship,  while  it  was  still  local.^  The  hymn  prob- 
ably belongs  to  the  seventh  century.*  When  Athens  gained  control 
of  Eleusis,  it  took  over  these  religious  rites  or  mysteries.^  Grad- 
ually the  cult  spread  throughout  Greece  and  many  from  distant 
regions  came  to  be  initiated."  The  performance  of  the  mysteries 
involved  the  acting  of  a  drama  or  pantomime,  but  probably  not 
much  instruction.^  The  celebration  of  these  rites  by  the  initiates 
"touched  their  emotions,  not  their  intellects."^  They  believed  in 
immortality,  but  thought  that  they  alone  were  assured  of  happiness 
in  the  other  life."  Their  hope  was  based  not  so  much  on  moral 
purity  as  on  ceremonial  cleansing  and  their  trust  in  the  efi&cacy  of 
the  ritual  and  their  own  emotional  experience.^" 

Orphism^^  had  its  origin  about  the  time  of  the  rise  of  philoso- 
phy.^^ It  is  defined  by  G.  Busolt  in  his  Griechische  Geschichte  as  a 
characteristic  union  of  Greek  speculation  and  Greek  ritualism  with 
traces  of  the  Thracian  Bacchus-cult.^^  Dionysus  was  its  great  god 
and  there  are  indications  of  a  monotheistic  and  pantheistic  belief.^* 
The  soul  is  divine,  imprisoned  in  the  body.^^  Immortality  and  the 
transmigration  of  souls  were  taught.^*'  Blessedness  could  be  obtained 
only  by  ceremonial  purity  and  asceticism.  No  meat  must  be  eaten. ^^ 
Strange  foreign  rites  were  employed  in  initiation,  but  with  spiritual 
meaning.^^  Brotherhoods  were  formed  in  different  places.  Athens 
was  the  most  important  center  and  Onomacritus  was  an  Orphic 
leader  there.^" 


^History  of  Greece,  I,  p.  411. 

'For  an  account   of  the   Eleusinian   Mysteries,   see   Fairbanks:     Handbook   of   Greek   Religion,   pp. 

128-137. 
•Grote:    History  of  Greece,  IV,  p.  69. 
'Moore:    Religious  Thought  of  the  Greeks,  p.  64. 
Hb.,  pp.  65-66. 
«Ib.,  p.  66. 

'Busolt:     Griechische  Geschichte,  II,  p.  360. 
'Moore:     Religious  Thought  of  the  Greeks,  p.  70. 
"lb.,  pp.  70-71. 
"lb.,  p.  73. 
"For   an   account   of   Orphism,    see   Fairbanks:     Handbook    of   Greek    Religion,    pp.    244-248,   and 

Meyer:     Geschichte  des  Altertums,  II,  pp.   734-749. 
"lb.,  p.  753. 
"Vol.  II,  pp.  362-363. 

"Fairbanks:     Handbook  of  Greek  Religion,  p.  245. 
"lb.,  pp.  245-246. 
»«Ib.,  p.  246. 

•'Meyer:    Geschichte  des  Altertums,  II,  p.  745. 
'^Fairbanks:    Handbook  of  Greek  Religion,  p.  246 
•'Moore:    Religious  Thought  of  the  Greeks,  p.  S3 


The  Later  Lyric  Period  59 

Religion  resulting  in  action  is  seen  in  the  waging  of  the  First 
Sacred  War  early  in  the  sixth  century  against  the  robbers  who 
molested  pilgrims  on  their  way  to  Delphi.  Grote  says  of  this  war, 
"The  destruction  of  Cirrha  by  the  Amphictyons  is  the  first  historical 
incident  which  brings  into  play,  in  defence  of  the  Delphian  temple, 
a  common  Hellenic  feeling  of  active  obligations."^ 

What  effect  then  would  these  religious  movements  have  on  edu- 
cation? Any  deep  emotional  experience,  any  aspiration  after  bles- 
sedness, any  feeling  of  personal  obligation,  especially  if  it  results 
in  action,  has  a  profound  effect  on  the  intellectual  as  well  as  the 
religious  and  moral  nature  of  man  and  forms  a  part  of  all  true 
education. 

We  have  now  reviewed  some  of  the  most  important  movements 
that  affected  education  in  the  sixth  century  down  to  the  year  525 
B.  C.  It  remains  for  us  to  discuss  education,  as  it  was  at  that  date. 
How  general  was  education?  How  were  the  schools  conducted? 
What  were  they  teaching  at  that  time?  The  information  that  we 
have  along  these  lines  belongs  to  a  later  date  and  mostly  concerns 
Athens  alone.  But  it  may  help  us  in  understanding  what  was  the 
educational  status  of  the  Greeks  twenty-five  years  before  the  close 
of  the  sixth  century. 

First  let  us  notice  a  passage  in  the  Crito  of  Plato.  Socrates  rep- 
resents the  laws  as  personified  and  saying  to  him: 

^  ov  KaXw  Trpoaerarrov  ^fimv  ol  iirl  roirrow  rerayfievot 
vo/jLOLy  TrapayjeXXovrei  tw  irarpl  rat  (rat  ae  ev  fiovatKy 
Kul  yvfivaa-TLKrj  TraiSeveLv;'' 

"Or  did  not  those  of  us  laws  in  charge  of  these  things  order  well 
in  bidding  your  father  to  educate  you  in  music  and  gymnastics?" 
So  Plato  intimated  that  when  Socrates  was  a  boy,  education  was 
compulsory  at  Athens  and  that  it  consisted  of  music  (in  its  broader 
sense)  and  gymnastics.  As  Socrates  was  born  about  470,  this  would 
refer  to  a  period  a  little  more  than  fifty  years  after  525.  Educa- 
tion must  have  been  well  advanced  and  quite  general  at  the  earlier 
date,  if  within  sixty  years  it  was  required  of  all  Athenian  citizens. 
The  division  into  music  and  gymnastics  dates  from  much  earlier 
times  and  was  undoubtedly  in  use  in  the  sixth  century.^ 

There  is  a  familiar  passage  in  Aristophanes'  Clouds,  in  which 

^Hutory  of  Greece,  II,  p.  270. 

-Crito,  p.  50,  D. 

^Davidson:    Education  of  the  Greek  Peopk,  p.  63. 


60  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

the  Just  Argument  describes  the  old  education.  We  quote  from 
that: 

Xe'^o)  roiwv  rrjv  ap')(aiav  iraiZeiav  w?  SieKctTO  «t\.' 

"I  shall  show  then  how  the  old  education  was  carried  on.  ...  In 
the  first  place  one  should  not  hear  a  boy  mumbling  his  words  at 
all,  then  it  was  necessary  to  walk  through  the  streets  in  good  order 
to  the  house  of  the  cithara-player,  the  boys  of  the  same  city-district 
together  lightly  clad,  even  if  it  was  snowing  hard.  Then  he  taught 
them  to  learn  a  song,  .  .  .  either  'Pallas,  the  terrible  sacker  of  cities,' 
or  'Some  far-reaching  sound,'  pitching  high  the  music  that  the 
fathers  handed  down,  .  .  .  but  if  any  of  them  played  the  buffoon,  .  .  . 
he  was  given  a  good  thrashing  .  .  ,  and  in  the  home  of  the  trainer 
it  was  necessary  for  the  boys,  when  sitting  down  to  put  the  thigh 
forward.  .  .  .  These  are  the  means  through  which  my  education 
reared  the  men  who  fought  at  Marathon."  As  the  battle  of  Mara- 
thon was  fought  in  490,  the  education  of  the  men  who  took  part 
in  the  combat  must  be  placed  from  ten  to  twenty  years  earlier,  which 
would  bring  the  date  back  nearly  to  525.  However  Aristophanes 
must  not  be  held  to  any  too  accurate  a  consideration  of  dates.  He 
merely  is  presenting  the  education  of  the  good  old  days  perhaps  with 
some  idealization.  What  we  note  in  the  portions  of  the  passage 
that  we  have  given  is  in  the  first  place  the  discreetness  and  modesty 
with  which  the  boys  were  obliged  to  act.  Discipline  was  severe.  We 
do  not  get  much  information  about  what  was  taught  except  the  learn- 
ing of  a  song.  Those  mentioned  were  popular  songs  of  two  dithy- 
rambic  poets.^  Besides  the  music  school  that  of  the  gymnastic 
trainer  is  mentioned. 

Our  next  passage  is  from  Plato  and  presents  the  education  of 
the  Athenians  toward  the  close  of  the  fifth  century,  a  hundred  years 
or  more  after  the  date  we  have  taken  as  the  end  of  the  period  of 
our  study.  The  description  includes  some  features  that  we  are 
already  familiar  with  and  as  this  is  the  case,  it  may  be  that  other 
features  hark  back  to  the  earlier  period.  At  any  rate  the  passage 
will  show  us  what  the  education  that  developed  so  rapidly  in  the 
sixth  century  became  at  a  later  date. 

Plato  begins  with  the  early  instruction  of  the  children  at  home 
by  the  nurse,  the  mother,  the  pedagogtie,  and  the  father.  There  they 
are  shown  the  distinction  between  right  and  wrong  and  are  taught 

'Lines  961-986. 

'Note  on  1.  967  of  the  passage  cited  in  Humphreys'  edition  of  the  Clouds. 


The  Later  Lyric  Period  61 

obedience,  even  by  threats  and  blows  if  necessary.    Plato  then  con- 
tinues : 

Mero.  Se  raxna  et?  BiBacrKoXav  ird^iirovre^  ktXj* 

"And  after  this,  sending  them  to  the  teachers,  they  (the  parents) 
enjoin  upon  these  to  care  for  the  morals  of  the  children  much  more 
than  for  both  letters  and  music.  And  the  teachers  are  concerned  for 
this  and  when  moreover  the  boys  learn  to  read  and  are  about  to 
understand  the  written  word,  just  as  formerly  the  spoken,  they  place 
before  them  on  the  benches  poems  of  good  poets  to  read  and  oblige 
them  to  commit  these  to  memory  and  in  these  poems  there  are  many 
warnings  and  many  descriptions  and  praises  and  encomiums  of  good 
men  of  ancient  times,  in  order  that  the  child  may  earnestly  imitate 
and  seek  to  become  such.  Moreover  the  cithara-players  act  in  a 
similar  manner  and  are  concerned  for  virtue  and  that  the  young  may 
do  nothing  wrong.  And  in  addition  to  this,  when  the  boys  learn  to 
play  the  cithara,  they  teach  them  too  poems  of  other  good  authors, 
the  lyric  poets,  setting  them  to  music  and  they  make  the  souls  of 
the  children  familiar  with  both  the  rhythms  and  harmonies  that  they 
may  be  more  cultured  and,  coming  to  have  more  rhythm  and  har- 
mony, may  be  useful  both  for  word  and  deed.  .  .  .  Still  in  addi- 
tion to  this  the  parents  send  them  to  the  trainer,  in  order  that,  hav- 
ing their  bodies  in  better  condition,  they  may  be  obedient  to  a  useful 
purpose  and  may  not  be  compelled  to  be  cowardly  on  account  of 
the  weakness  of  the  body  both  in  war  and  in  other  activities.  .  .  . 
And  when  they  go  out  from  school,  the  city  obliges  them  both  to 
learn  the  laws  and  to  live  in  accordance  with  them." 

We  see  here  the  three  divisions  of  education  again — letters, 
music,  and  gymnastics.  We  find  the  study  of  poetry  and  the  com- 
mitting of  it  to  memory  and  the  singing  of  lyric  poems  to  the 
accompaniment  of  the  cithara.  In  this  passage  the  emphasis  is  laid 
on  moral  instruction,  which  seems  to  have  pervaded  all  the  work 
of  the  schools.  If  this  was  true  in  Plato's  time,  it  is  likely  that  in 
the  earlier  and  more  virtuous  period  before  the  Persian  Wars  the 
same  stress  was  laid  on  this  feature.  However  the  training  of  the 
ephebi,  or  youths  from  eighteen  to  twenty,  mentioned  at  the  close 
of  the  passage  undoubtedly  was  better  developed  in  the  fifth  cen- 
tury than  in  the  sixth.  But  that  they  were  organized  at  the  earlier 
date  seems  likely,  for  Lycurgus  says  that  the  Greek  army  at  Plataca 


^Protagoras,  pp.  325  D-326  D. 


62  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

in  479  repeated  an  oath  that  was  modeled  upon  that  which  the  ephebi 
took,  when  they  became  citizens.^  It  may  be  well  in  this  connection 
to  give  the  wording  of  the  oath  that  we  may  see  something  of  the 
ideals  that  Athens  had  for  her  youth. 

"I  will  not  bring  dishonor  to  these  holy  weapons,  and  will  not 
desert  the  comrade  who  stands  side  by  side  with  me,  whoever  he 
may  be.  For  the  holy  places  and  the  laws,  I  will  fight  singly  and 
with  others.  I  will  leave  my  country  not  in  a  worse,  but  in  a  better 
condition  by  sea  and  land  than  I  have  received  it.  I  will  willingly 
and  at  all  times  submit  to  the  judges  and  to  the  established  ordi- 
nances, also  not  allow  that  any  one  should  infringe  thereon  or  not 
give  due  obedience.  I  will  reverence  the  ancestral  worship.  Let 
the  gods  be  witnesses  of  this."^ 

The  passages  that  we  have  quoted  have  had  to  do  primarily 
with  Athens.  One  incident  that  Herodotus  mentions  throws  a  little 
light  on  education  at  Chios  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century. 

rovTO  Be  ev  Ty  ttoXi  top  avrov  tovtov  ')(p6vov  ktX.^ 

"But  in  the  city  at  this  same  time,  a  little  while  before  the  naval  battle, 
while  some  school  boys  were  being  taught  letters,  the  roof  fell  upon 
them,  so  that  of  the  hundred  and  twenty  boys  only  one  escaped." 
The  surprising  thing  in  this  passage  is  the  number  of  pupils  men- 
tioned as  attending  the  school.  With  one  hundred  and  twenty  con- 
siderable organization  was  needed  and  a  number  of  teachers  re- 
quired. This  was  no  small  school,  where  a  single  master  would 
have  charge  of  ten  or  a  dozen  boys,  but  an  institution  that  might 
bear  some  resemblance  to  a  modern  city  school.  Education  must 
certainly  have  been  well  developed  and  popular  in  Chios  a  few 
years  after  the  close  of  the  period  under  discussion. 

To  these  quotations  from  ancient  writers  may  be  added  some 
suggestive  statements  by  modem  authors,  that  will  not  be  out  of 
place  here.  First  we  quote  from  William  Mure,  who  in  discussing 
the  early  use  of  writing  in  Greece  speaks  as  follows:  "Besides  the 
anxiety  of  each  citizen  to  secure  to  his  descendants  the  elementary 
qualifications  for  the  duties  or  privileges  of  his  order,  it  was  also  the 
concern  of  the  common  parent,  the  state,  to  place  all  her  children 
on  an  equal  footing  in  these  important  respects."* 


^Leocrates,  chaps.  18-19. 

■-'As  quoted  by  S.  S.  Laurie:     Historical  Survey  of  Pre-Christian  Education,  p.  271,  based  on  Sto- 

baeus:    Florilegium,  43,  sec.  43. 
'Book  VI,  chap.  27. 
*A  Critical  History  oj  the  Language  and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece,  III,  p.  448. 


The  Later  Lyric  Period  63 

The  second  quotation  deals  with  the  subject  matter  of  education 
and  is  taken  from  Crete's  History  of  Greece.  "Down  to  the  generation 
preceding  Socrates,  the  poets  continued  to  be  the  grand  leaders  of 
the  Greek  mind:  until  then  nothing  was  taught  to  youth  except  to 
read,  to  remember,  to  recite  musically  and  rhythmically  and  to  com- 
prehend poetical  composition.  The  comments  of  preceptors,  ad- 
dressed to  their  pupils,  may  probably  have  become  fuller  and  more 
instructive,  but  the  text  still  continued  to  be  epic  or  early  lyric 
poetry."^ 

Finally  we  give  a  suggestion  of  Mahaffy's  that  we  may  judge 
of  the  early  education  by  its  fruits.  "The  fact  that  Aeschylus  was 
appreciated  proves  that  Athens  had  attained  intellectual  culture  fit 
for  a  great  democracy."^  Can  we  not  go  even  farther  than  does 
MahafFy  and  say  that  Creek  education  at  about  525  B.  C.  produced 
an  Aeschylus  and  also  a  Pindar,  that  whatever  native  talent  they 
possessed  was  called  forth  and  developed  by  their  training  in  the 
schools  and  by  the  stimulating  influence  of  their  environment.  No 
better  testimonial  to  the  efficiency  of  the  education  of  the  sixth  cen- 
tury can  be  asked  than  the  existence  of  so  many  distinguished  men 
as  there  were  at  the  beginning  of  the  fifth.  By  this  criterion  of  judg- 
ment it  stands  approved. 

We  have  discussed  the  education  of  the  lyric  age  in  its  earlier 
and  later  periods.  At  first  there  were  no  schools,  but  there  was 
real  education  none  the  less  in  the  home  and  in  connection  with 
civic  life  and  the  requirements  of  religion.  The  subject  mat- 
ter of  education  was  increasing.  Poetry  was  produced.  Art  was 
developing.  Then  as  writing  came  into  more  general  use  among 
the  people,  schools  were  established.  Improvements  were  made 
till  in  time  we  have  the  schools  described  by  Aristophanes  and  Plato. 
The  rule  of  the  tyrants  with  their  patronage  of  art,  architecture,  and 
literature,  the  rise  of  philosophy  and  of  a  more  personal  form  of 
religion — all  contributed  to  the  means  of  education  existing  in  the 
Greek  states.  The  training  that  the  schools  afforded,  the  require- 
ments of  civic  life,  and  the  environment  of  a  cultured  society  were 
factors  in  an  education  that  made  the  young  man  capable  of  taking 
his  part  in  the  activities  of  the  community  and  of  appreciating  the 
finer  things  of  life  to  an  extent  that  astonishes  us. 


»Vol.  IV,  p.  97. 

^Social  Life  in  Greece,  pp.  89-90. 


CONCLUSION 

As  we  have  discussed  at  the  close  of  each  portion  of  our  work 
the  educational  value  of  the  training  of  the  young  during  the  period, 
we  need  not  speak  at  length  upon  this  subject.  Rather  let  us  empha- 
size the  most  striking  essentials  that  we  have  already  noted  and  see  if 
we  can  find  any  real  unity  pervading  the  educational  ideals  and  the 
means  of  realizing  those  ideals  which  characterized  the  successive 
periods. 

Furthermore  we  may  state  that  we  are  offering  no  new  and 
striking  theories  in  regard  to  Greek  education.  In  the  period  of 
Aegean  civilization  we  may  make  some  claim  to  be  pioneers  in  the 
study  of  the  archaeological  evidence  with  the  sole  view  of  dis- 
covering what  the  education  of  those  people  may  have  been.  In 
the  lyric  period  we  have  remarshalled  and  reclassified  facts  often 
cited,  so  as  to  give  a  picture  as  complete  as  possible  of  those  influ- 
ences in  school  and  out  that  were  moulding  the  Greeks  of  that  age. 
We  depart  from  views  expressed  by  others  only  to  the  extent  of  rais- 
ing the  question,  if  schools  did  not  exist  in  Greece  a  considerable 
length  of  time  before  the  close  of  the  seventh  century,  the  date  ordi- 
narily assigned.  That  point  has  been  discussed  at  length  elsewhere. 
Our  great  aim  has  been  to  collect  and  present  the  facts  and  the  evi- 
dence on  which  we  may  base  our  conception  of  education  in  the  early 
days  of  Greece — a  period  that  in  most  histories  of  education,  if  it  is 
touched  upon  at  all,  is  treated  merely  as  a  preliminary  to  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  schools  of  the  fifth  century  and  the  theories  of  Plato 
and  Aristotle. 

Having  made  this  explanation,  we  proceed  to  state  what  seem 
to  us  the  most  striking  features  in  the  educational  development  of 
early  Greece.  In  the  period  of  Aegean  civilization  we  are  impressed 
with  the  fact  that  its  culture  is  unique,  utterly  unlike  that  of  Egypt, 
Mesopotamia,  and  Phoenicia.  Therefore  education,  direct  and  in- 
direct, must  have  diff"ered  from  that  of  the  countries  mentioned. 

In  the  lyric  period  we  note  the  early  rise  of  schools  and  the 
great  emphasis  placed  on  the  aesthetic  as  well  as  on  the  intellectual 
and  the  physical. 

Perhaps  in  this  last  point  we  s^e  one  of  the  factors  that  will 
tend  to  unify  all  Greek  education.    The  dagger-blades  from  Mycenae, 


64 


Conclusion  65 

the  Shield  of  Achilles,  if  we  should  include  the  Homeric  Age,  the 
"Maiderxs"  of  the  Acropolis,  together  with  the  treasures  of  Greek 
art  of  the  later  days,  all  point  to  a  similarity  of  cultural  ideals  that 
affected  the  education  of  all  periods. 

Again  the  training  was  for  active  life.  We  cannot  conceive  of 
anything  appearing  in  early  Greek  like  the  monastic  learning  of 
the  Middle  Ages.  Even  the  Greek  philosophers  were  men  of  affairs. 
Greek  education  was  practical  and  fitted  men  to  live  in  the  Greek 
world  with  its  varied  interests. 

The  note  of  progress  sounds  through  it  all.  We  have  here  no 
Egyptian  conservatism  nor  Chinese  memorizing  of  the  classics  handed 
down  from  a  hoary  antiquity.  Constant  advance  was  made  and  wel- 
comed.    Everywhere  there  was  promise  for  the  future. 

The  whole  man  was  trained.  Physical  education  played  an  im- 
portant part  in  historic  Greece  and  probably  also  in  the  period  of 
Aegean  civilization.  Music,  dancing,  poetry,  art,  religion,  and  in- 
dustrial training  were  all  factors  in  education  and  intense  speciali- 
zation was  almost  unknown  till  a  comparatively  late  date  in  Greek 
history. 

We  add  one  more  characteristic,  which  is  strikingly  Hellenic, 
delight  in  what  is  simple  and  beautiful.  It  is  seen  in  some  of  the 
wall-paintings  at  Cnossus.  It  is  the  charm  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey, 
and  it  continues  to  appear  in  a  thousand  ways,  even  when  life  was 
becoming  more  complex  in  Greece.  This  spirit  pervading  Greek 
education  and  culture  gives  an  impression  of  freshness  and  spon- 
taneity to  the  masterpieces  that  Greek  genius  has  bestowed  upon 
the  world. 

To  most  men  Greek  education  means  the  theories  of  the  philos- 
ophers or  the  teaching  of  the  sophists.  Important  as  these  are,  it 
is  an  interesting  and  valuable  study  to  go  back  to  the  times  when 
Greek  ideals  were  forming  and  to  trace  the  educational  development 
of  a  people  in  the  days  when  life  was  comparatively  simple  and  men 
were  living  near  to  nature  and  were  unspoiled  by  convention.  Such 
study  shows  us  that  even  in  that  early  epoch  the  training  of  the 
young  was  broad,  was  developed  along  aesthetic  lines,  but  was  at 
the  same  time  practical  and  essentially  Greek. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


History 
Abbott,  E. 
Beloch,  K.  J. 
Bury,  J.  B. 
Busolt,  G. 
Cox,  G.  W. 
Curtius,  E. 

Duncker,  M.  W. 

Grote,  G. 
Holm,  A. 

Meyer,  E. 

Greek  Literature 

Browne,  H. 

Columbia  University — Lectures 

Croiset,  A.,  and  Croiset,  M. 

Evelyn-White,  H.  G. 

Jebb,  R.  C. 

Jevons,  F.  B. 
Lawton,  W.  C. 
Mahaffy,  J.  P. 

Mure,  W. 

Paley,  F.  A. 
Patrick,  Mary  M. 
Sikes  and  Allen 
Symonds,  J.  A. 
Waltz,  P. 
Warr,  G.  W. 

Wilamowitz-Mollendorff,  U. 
Wright,  W.  C. 


History  of  Greece 

Griechische  Geschichte 

History  of  Greece 

Griechische  Geschichte 

History  of  Greece 

History  of  Greece,  translated  from 

the  German. 
History  of  Greece,  translated  from 

the  German. 
History  of  Greece 
History  of  Greece,  translated  from 

the  German. 
Geschichte  des  Altertums 

Handbook  of  Homeric  Study 
on  Greek  Literature 

Histoire  de  la  Litterature  Grecque 
Hesiod,  the  Homeric  Hymns,  and 
Homerica 

Classical  Greek  Poetry 
Primer  of  Greek  Literature 
History  of  Greek  Literature 
The  Successors  of  Homer 
History  of  Classical  Greek 

Literature 
Critical  History  of  the  Language 

and  Literature  of  Ancient  Greece 
The  Epics  of  Hesiod 
Sappho  and  the  Island  of  Lesbos 
The  Homeric  Hymns 
Studies  of  the  Greek  Poets 
Hesiod  et  son  Poeme  Moral 
The  Greek  Epic 
Sappho  und  Simonides 
A  Short  History  of  Greek 

Literature 


66 


Bibliography 


67 


Minoan  and  Mycenaean  Periods 
Baikie,  J. 
Burrows,  R.  M. 
Dussaud,  R. 

Evans,  A,  J. 


Fimmen,  D. 

Hall,  H.  R. 

Hawes,  C.  H.  and  Hawes, 

Mrs.  H.  B. 
Hogarth,  D.  G. 

Lagrange,  P.  M. 
Mosso,  A. 

Schuchardt,  C. 

Tsountas,  C.  and  Manatt,  J.  I. 

Greek  Life 
Dickinson,  F.  L. 
Mahaffy,  J.  P. 
Scoggin,  G.  C.,  and 

Burkitt,  C.  G. 
Seymour,  T.  D. 

Greek  Art 
Gardner,  E.  A. 
Tarbell,  F.  B. 

Greek  Religion 
Fairbanks,  A. 
Moore,  C.  H. 

Greek  Education 
Compayre,  G. 
Davidson,  T. 
Drever,  J. 


The  Sea-Kings  of  Crete 

The  Discoveries  in  Crete 

Les  civilizations  Prehelleniques 
dans  le  Bassin  de  la  Mer  £gee 

Articles  in  the  Annual  of  the  Brit- 
ish School  at  Athens,  Nos.  VI-XI 

Article,  Crete   (ancient)    in  Ency- 
clopaedia Britannica,  11th.  Ed, 

Scripta  Minoa 

Zeit  and  Dauer  der  Kretisch-My- 
kenischen  Kultur 

Aegean  Archaeology 

Crete  the  Forerunner  of  Greece 

Article,  Aegean  Civilization  in  En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica,  11th.  Ed. 

La  Crete  Ancienne 

Palaces  of  Crete  and  Their 
Builders 

Schliemann's  Excavations 

The  Mycenaean  Age 

The  Greek  View  of  Life 
Social  Life  in  Greece 

Weissenborn's  Homeric  Life 
Life  in  the  Homeric  Age 

Handbook  of  Greek  Sculpture 
History  of  Greek  Art 

Handbook  of  Greek  Religion 
The  Religious  Thought  of  the 
Greeks 

The  History  of  Pedagogy 
Education  of  the  Greek  People 
Greek  Education,  Its  Practice  and 
Principles 


68  Educational  Progress  in  Greece 

Exarchopulos,  N.  Das  athenische  und  das  spartan- 

ische  ErzieJmngssystem 
Freeman,  K.  J.  Schools  of  Hellas 

Laurie,  S.  S.  Historical  Survey  of  Pre-Christian 

Education 
Mahaffy,  J.  P.  Old  Greek  Education 

Monroe,  P.  Source   Book   of   the   History   of 

Education   for   the   Greek   and 

Roman  Period 
Painter,  F.  V.  N.  History  of  Education 

Schmidt,  K.  Geschichte  der  Pddagogik 

References  to  fragments  of  the  lyric  poets  have  been  made 
according  to  the  numbering  used  in  Hiller-Crusius'  Anthologia 
Lyrica. 


I 


^^BKSrTVCCAUBOKNIALIBKARV 


'"^^ccnts'on  first  day  oTecd 


9Jul'52GD 
'JUL 

!OApr'57AS 


JUK3   I960 

200ct'6nA 

OCT  ?    ^961 


)  9  \Qf)] 

|i,21^6^«;:i2}^A2012Bl6)4120 


14  DAY  USE 

RETURN  TO  DESK  FROM  WHICH  BORROWED 

LOAN  DEPT. 

This  book  is  due  on  the  last  date  stamped  below,  or 

on  the  date  to  which  renewed. 

Renewed  books  are  subjea  to  immediate  recall. 


Kinw 


jUNlSl^es^^ 


^ECCfX^^B 


j»N  nm 


^tm 


i-OAN  de:pt 


^ 


T^ 


^1 


owe  &» 


'r      m\  2  6'?^ 


NOV  2  2  1982 


fiECCiR.  JAI^04'83 


LD  21A-45m-9,'67 
(H50678l0)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

Berkeley 


